Ways to Live

Abstract

The Ways to Live scale, developed by Charles Morris, is a classic instrument in social psychology and value theory designed to measure an individual’s preference for thirteen distinct philosophical or behavioral life ideals. Each ideal, presented as a detailed description of a “design for living,” summarizes a major historical tradition or ethical stance, ranging from classical moderation and social participation to solitary contemplation, hedonistic enjoyment, or active mastery of the environment. The scale forces participants to evaluate and prioritize these diverse conceptions of the good life, providing insight into fundamental human value orientations and their structure across various cultures.

The instrument was initially developed to explore the comparative strength of these life-ideals in Eastern and Western cultures, contributing significantly to the understanding of cross-cultural variability in moral and philosophical preferences. Psychometric analysis later revealed underlying dimensions that structure these preferences, offering a robust framework for studying individual differences in life goals.

Keywords

Charles Morris, value orientations, paths of life, life ideals, philosophical values, social psychology, cross-cultural study, value system

Authors

Charles Morris, Leland Jones

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Ways to Live scale is to empirically assess the relative attractiveness of thirteen comprehensive philosophical viewpoints regarding the ideal structure and content of life. By presenting participants with detailed descriptions of life paths, the scale aims to quantify individual differences in core values and existential commitments. This assessment allows researchers to study how these fundamental value orientations relate to personality, temperament, social attitudes, and cultural background.

Furthermore, the scale was crucial in Charles Morris‘s broader research program concerning human values, allowing for factor analytic studies to distill the complex set of thirteen ways into a smaller, manageable set of underlying value dimensions. This facilitated comparative research, particularly between American and non-Western samples, establishing the scale as a significant early tool in comparative value research.

Construct

The Ways to Live scale measures the construct of fundamental human value orientations, conceived as comprehensive philosophical commitments or life ideals. Morris derived these thirteen ways by synthesizing major world philosophies and psychological approaches to the good life. The construct posits that individuals structure their behavior and attitudes around a preferred way of navigating existence, which can be categorized along dimensions such as self-control versus spontaneity, withdrawal versus social engagement, and action versus contemplation.

Each of the thirteen items represents a distinct, internally coherent philosophy of life. For instance, Way 1 emphasizes classical moderation and social preservation, while Way 12 champions energetic, adventurous action and physical mastery. The scale measures the degree to which an individual accepts or rejects these distinct ethical and existential frameworks.

Validity

Construct validity for the Ways to Live scale has been established through extensive factor analytic studies, notably those conducted by Morris and Jones (1955) and Osgood, Ware, and Morris (1961). These studies consistently demonstrated that the thirteen ways cluster into meaningful, theoretically grounded dimensions, supporting the scale’s ability to measure underlying philosophical commitments rather than mere transient preferences.

Further validation was achieved through correlations with measures of temperament and personality (Jones & Morris, 1956), showing predictable relationships between preferred Ways to Live and specific personality traits. For example, Ways associated with “Withdrawal and Self-Sufficiency” typically correlated negatively with measures of extroversion and social engagement, enhancing the scale’s empirical support.

Reliability

While specific internal consistency coefficients (like Cronbach’s Alpha) for the individual Ways are not detailed in the provided source material, the repeated success of the factor analysis across diverse samples suggests high structural stability and reliability of the underlying dimensions. The consistency of factor loadings across different studies and populations (including cross-cultural samples) indicates that the scale items reliably measure the intended philosophical constructs.

The original research utilized both ranking and rating methodologies, with the rating method (7-point scale) generally preferred in later studies for its improved statistical properties, indirectly supporting the reliability of the measurement approach.

Factor Analysis

The factor analysis of the thirteen Ways to Live revealed five major independent dimensions of value orientation. These dimensions summarize the common variance among the specific ways and provide a more abstract understanding of human value preferences:

• Social Restraint and Self-Control: Positive loadings on Ways 1 (Social Preservation and Moderation) and 10 (Stoic Self-Control); Negative loading on Way 4 (Sensuous Enjoyment). This factor reflects a preference for order, discipline, and caution.
• Enjoyment and Progress in Action: Positive loadings on Ways 12 (Adventuresome Deeds), 5 (Group Participation), and 6 (Mastery of Conditions); Negative loading on Way 2 (Self-Sufficiency). This factor emphasizes energetic engagement with the external world and the pursuit of improvement.
• Withdrawal and Self-Sufficiency: Positive loadings on Ways 11 (Contemplative Inner Life) and 2 (Cultivating Independence); Negative loading on Way 5 (Group Participation). This dimension highlights the preference for solitude, reflection, and independence from social and material dependence.
• Receptivity and Sympathetic Concern: Positive loadings on Ways 13 (Obey Cosmic Purposes) and 9 (Quiet Receptivity). This factor involves openness to external forces, humility, and a focus on devotion or spiritual nourishment.
• Self-Indulgence or Sensuous Enjoyment: Positive loadings on Ways 8 (Wholesome, Carefree Enjoyment) and 4 (Festivity and Solitude in Alternation); Negative loading on Way 13 (Obey Cosmic Purposes). This factor captures the prioritization of simple, immediate, and often physical pleasures.

Instrument

Test Type: Psychological scale / Value Inventory (Self-report)

Format: The instrument uses two primary response formats:

1. Ranking: Participants rank the thirteen Ways to Live from 1 (Most Preferred) to 13 (Least Preferred).
2. Rating: Participants rate each of the thirteen Ways on a 7-point Likert-style scale, where 7 indicates “I like it very much” and 1 indicates “I dislike it very much.”

Language Available: Primarily English; used extensively in cross-cultural research, suggesting translation into multiple languages (e.g., studies comparing Eastern and Western cultures).

Population Group: Adults and college students.

Age Group: Typically 18 years and older.

Population Details: The scale has been widely administered to diverse populations, including American college students, and used for comparative studies involving various global cultural groups to examine differences in core values.

Test Methodology: Participants are presented with thirteen descriptive paragraphs, each outlining a complete philosophy of life. They are instructed to evaluate these descriptions based on their own personal preferences. The rating scale uses the following anchors:

• 7 I like it very much
• 6 I like it quite a lot
• 5 I like it slightly
• 4 I am in different to it
• 3 I dislike it slightly
• 2 I dislike it quite a lot
• 1 I dislike it very much

The original PDF containing this instrument can be downloaded here: https://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/dis/infoserv/isrpub/pdf/Measuresofsocialpsychologicalattitudes_2928_.PDF

Keywords

value system, philosophical anthropology, psychometric analysis, moral philosophy, life goals, temperament, existential commitment

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in the source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not specified in the source material (Historical scale).

Correspondence Address: Not specified in the source material (Historical scale).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions: The scale is widely considered to be in the public domain for research purposes, particularly as documented in comprehensive measures collections like those published by the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

Fee: Generally free for non-commercial academic research.

Test Year: The core conceptualization (Paths of Life) dates back to 1942, with the primary psychometric refinement and factor analysis published in the mid-1950s (e.g., 1955, 1956).

Reference’s

• Morris‚ C. (1951). Comparative strength of Life-ideals in Eastern and Western cultures. In Moore ‚ C. (ed.) Essays in East-West philosophy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press‚ 353-370.
• Morris‚ C. and Jones‚ L. (1955). Value scales and dimensions. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology‚ 51‚ 523-535.
• Morris‚ C. (1956). Paths of Life. New York: Harper‚ 1942; 2nd edition‚ New York: Braziller.
• Morris‚ C. (1956). Varieties of human value. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Jones‚ L. and Morris‚ C. (1956). Relations of temperament to the choice of values‚ Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology‚ 53‚ 346-349.
• Osgood‚ C‚ Ware‚ E.‚ and Morris‚ C. (1961). Analysis of the connotative meanings of a variety of human values as expressed by American college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology‚ 62‚ 62-73.
• Dempsey‚ P. and Dukes‚ W. (1966). Complex value stimuli: an examination and revision of Morris’s Paths of Life. Educational and Psychological Measurement‚ 1966‚ 26‚ 871-882.
• Robinson‚ John P.‚ Shaver‚ Phillip R. (1969). Measures of Political Attitudes. Institute for Social Research‚ University of Michigan/. Ann Arbor‚ Michigan

Items of the Ways to Live

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

WAY 1: In this “design for living” the individual actively participates in the social Life of his community‚ not to change it primarily‚ but to understand‚ appreciate‚ and preserve the best that man has attained. Excessive desires should be avoided and moderation sought. One wants the good things of Life but in an orderly way. Life is to have clarity‚ balance‚ refinement‚ control . Vulgarity‚ great enthusiasm‚ irrational behavior‚ impatience‚ indulgence are to be avoided‚ Friendship is to be esteemed but not easy intimacy with many people. Life is to have discipline‚ intelligibility‚ good manners‚ predictability. Social changes are to be made slowly and carefully‚ so that what has been achieved in human culture is not lost. The individual should be active physically and socially‚ but not in a hectic or radical way. Restraint and intelligence should give order to an active Life.

WAY 2: The individual should for the most part “go it alone‚” assuring himself of privacy in living quarters‚ ha‎ving much time to himself‚ attempting to control his own Life. One should stress self – sufficiency‚ reflection and meditation‚ knowledge of himself. The direction of interest should be away from intimate associations with social groups‚ and away from the physical manipulation of objects or attempts at control of the physical environment. One should aim to simplify one’s external Life‚ to moderate those desires whose satisfaction is dependent upon physical and social forces outside of oneself‚ and to concentrate attention upon the refinement‚ clarification‚ and self-direction of oneself. Not much can be done or is to be gained by “living outwardly.” One must avoid dependence upon persons or things; the center of Life should be found with in oneself.

WAY 3: This way of Life makes central the sympathetic concern for other persons. Affection should be the main thing in Life‚ affection that is free from all traces of the imposition of oneself upon others or of using others for one’s own purposes. Greed in possessions‚ emphasis on sexual passion‚ the search for power over persons and things‚ excessive emphasis upon intellect‚ and undue concern for oneself are to be avoided. For these things hinder the sympathetic love among persons which alone gives significance to Life. I f we are aggressive we block our receptivity to the personal forces upon which we are dependent for genuine personal growth. One should accordingly purify oneself‚ restrain one’s self-assertiveness‚ and become receptive‚ appreciative‚ and helpful with respect to other persons.

WAY 4: Life is something to be enjoyed—sensuously enjoyed‚ enjoyed with relish and abandonment. The aim in Life should not be to control the course of the world or society or the live s of others‚ but to be open and receptive to things and persons‚ and to delight in them. Life is more a festival than a workshop or a school for moral discipline. To let oneself go‚ to let things and persons affect oneself‚ is .more important than to do— o r to do good. Such enjoyment‚ however‚ requires that one be self-centered enough to be keenly aware of what is happening and free for new happenings. So one should avoid entanglements‚ should not be too dependent on particular people or things‚ should not be self-sacrificing; one should be alone a lot‚ should have time for meditation and awareness of oneself. Solitude and sociality together are both necessary in the good Life .

WAY 5: A person should not hold on to himself‚ withdraw from people‚ keep aloof and self-centered. Rather merge oneself with a social group‚ enjoy cooperation and companionship‚ join with others in resolute activity for the realization of common goals. Persons are social and persons are active; Life should merge energetic group activity and cooperative group enjoyment. Meditation‚ restraint‚ concern for one’s self- sufficiency‚ abstract intellectuality‚ solitude‚ stress on one’s possessions all cut the roots which bind persons together. One should live outwardly with gusto‚ enjoying the good things of Life‚ working with others to secure the things which make possible a pleasant and energetic social Life. Those who oppose this ideal are not to be dealt with too tenderly. Life can’t be too fastidious.

WAY 6: Life continuously tends to stagnate‚ to become “comfortable‚” to become sickled o’er with the pale cast of thought. Against these tendencies‚ a person must stress the need of constant activity — physical action‚ adventure‚ the realistic solution of specific problems as they appear‚ the improvement of techniques for controlling the world and society. Man’s future depends primarily on what he does‚ not on what he feels or on his speculations. New problems constantly arise and always will arise. Improvements must always be made if man is to progress. We can’t just follow the past or dream of what the future might be. We have to work resolutely and continually if control is to be gained over the forces which threaten us. Man should rely on technical advances made possible by scientific knowledge. He should find his goal in the solution of his problems. The good is the enemy of the better.

WAY 7: We should at various times and in various ways accept something from all other paths of Life‚ but give no one our exclusive allegiance. At one moment one of them is the more appropriate; at another moment another is the most appropriate. Life should contain enjoyment and action and contemplation in about equal amounts. When either is carried to extremes we lose something important for our Life. So we must cultivate flexibility‚ admit diversity in ourselves‚ accept the tension which this diversity produces‚ find a place for detachment in the midst of enjoyment and activity. The goal of Life is found in the dynamic integration of enjoyment‚ action‚ and contemplation‚ and so in the dynamic interaction of the various paths of Life. One should use all of them in building a Life‚ and no one alone.

WAY 8: Enjoyment should be the keynote of Life. Not the hectic search for intense and exciting pleasures‚ but the enjoyment of the simple and easily obtainable pleasures: the pleasures of just existing‚ of savory food‚ of comfortable surroundings‚ of talking with friends‚ of rest and relaxation. A home that is warm and comfortable‚ chairs and a bed that are soft‚ a kitchen well stocked with food‚ a door open to the entrance of friends – – this is the place to live. Body at ease‚ relaxed‚ calm in its movements‚ not hurried‚ breath slow‚ willing to nod and rest‚ grateful to the world that is its food-‎-so should the body be. Driving ambition and the fanaticism of ascetic ideals are the signs of discontented people who have lost the capacity to float in the stream of simple‚ care free‚ wholesome enjoyment.

WAY 9: Receptivity should be the keynote of Life. The good things come of their own accord‚ and come unsought. They cannot be found by resolute action. They cannot be found in the indulgence of the sensuous desires of the body. They cannot be gathered by participation in the turmoil of social Life. They cannot be given to others by attempts to be helpful. They cannot be garnered by hard thinking. Rather do they come unsought when the bars of the self are down. When the self has ceased to make demands and waits in quiet receptivity‚ it becomes open to the powers which nourish it and work through it; and sustained by these powers it knows joy and peace. To sit alone under the trees and the sky‚ open to nature’s voices‚ calm and receptive‚ then can the wisdom from without come with in.

WAY 10: Self – control should be the keynote of Life. Not the easy self – control which retreats from the world‚ but the vigilant‚ stern‚ manly control of a self which live s in the world‚ and knows the strength of the world and the limits of human power. The good Life is rationally directed and holds firm to high ideals. It is not bent by the seductive voices of comfort and desire. It does not expect social utopias‚ It is distrustful of final victories. Too much cannot be expected. Yet one can with vigilance hold firm the reins to his self‚ control his unruly impulses‚ understand his place in the world‚ guide his actions by reason‚ maintain his self-reliant independence. And in this way‚ though he finally perish‚ man can deep his human dignity and respect‚ and die with cosmic good manners.

WAY 11: The contemplative life is the good life. The external is no fit habitat for man. It is too big‚ too cold‚ too pressing. Rather It is the Life turned inward that Is rewarding. The rich internal world of ideals‚ of sensitive feelings‚ of reverie‚ of self-knowledge is man’s true home. By the cultivation of the self within‚ man alone becomes human. Only then does there arise deep sympathy with all that lives‚ an understanding of the suffering inherent in Life‚ a realization of the futility of aggressive action‚ the attainment of contemplative joy. Conceit then falls away and austerity is dissolved. In giving up the world one finds the larger and finer sea of the inner self.

WAY 12: The use of the body’s energy is the secret of a rewarding Life. The hands need material to make into something: lumber and stone for building‚ food to harvest‚ clay to mold. The muscles are a live to joy only in action‚ in climbing‚ running‚ skiing and the like. Life finds its zest in overcoming‚ dominating‚ conquering some obstacle. It is the active deed which is satisfying‚ the deed adequate to the present‚ the daring and adventuresome deed. Not in cautious foresight‚ not in relaxed ease does Life attain completion. Outward energetic action‚ the excitement of power in the tangible present – – this is the way to live .

WAY 13: A person should let himself be used. Used by other persons in their growth‚ used by the great objective purposes in the universe which silently and irresistibly achieve their goal. For persons and the world’s purposes are dependable at heart‚ and can be trusted. One should be humble‚ constant‚ faithful‚ uninsistent. Grateful for the affection and protection which one needs‚ but undemanding. Close to persons and to nature‚ and secure because close. Nourishing the good by devotion and sustained by the good because of devotion. One should be a serene‚ confident‚ quiet vessel and instrument of the great dependable powers which move to their fulfillment.

The concise summaries of the Ways used for ranking are:

1. preserve the best that man has attained
2. cultivate independence of persons and things
3. show sympathetic concern for others
4. experience festivity and solitude in alternation
5. act and enjoy Life through group participation
6. constantly ma‎ster changing conditions.
7. integrate action ‚ enjoyment and contemplation
8. live with wholesome‚ care free enjoyment
9. wait in quiet receptivity
10. control the self stoically
11. meditate on the inner Life
12. chance adventuresome deeds
13. obey the cosmic purposes