Sport Motivation Scale (SMS)

Abstract

The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) is a widely utilized psychometric instrument designed to assess the diverse motivational profiles of athletes, grounded in the principles of Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Developed initially by Pelletier, Vallerand, and colleagues in 1995, the scale differentiates among various types of motivation, including three facets of Intrinsic Motivation (IM), three types of Extrinsic Motivation (EM), and Amotivation. The SMS is crucial for researchers and practitioners aiming to understand the underlying reasons for sport participation, persistence, performance, and dropout, having undergone subsequent revisions (SMS-6 and SMS-II) to refine its factor structure and improve psychometric properties in line with theoretical advancements in SDT.

Keywords

Sport Motivation Scale, SMS, Self-Determination Theory, SDT, Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, Amotivation, Sport Psychology, Athlete Persistence, Motivation Regulation

Authors

Luc G. Pelletier, Robert J. Vallerand, Marc R. Blaise, Nathalie M. Brière, Claude Senécal, Élaine F. Valliéres, Marty S. Fortier, Kimberley Tuson, C. J. Mallett, M. Kawabata, P. Newcombe, A. Otero-Forero, S. Jackson, Maria A. Rocchi, Edward L. Deci, Richard M. Ryan

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) is to provide a reliable and valid measure of an individual’s motivation within the context of sport participation. It aims to quantify the degree to which an athlete’s engagement is driven by autonomous reasons (e.g., enjoyment, interest) versus controlled reasons (e.g., external rewards, avoidance of guilt), or a complete lack of motivation (Amotivation).

By classifying motivation according to the continuum proposed by SDT, the SMS allows researchers to predict critical outcomes such as adherence to training programs, persistence in the face of difficulties, levels of psychological well-being, and eventual athlete dropout rates, as demonstrated in studies such as those involving female handballers. The scale serves as a diagnostic tool for understanding the quality, rather than merely the quantity, of motivation.

Construct

The SMS is fundamentally rooted in the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), specifically focusing on the motivational continuum. The original 28-item SMS (1995) measured seven distinct subscales:

• Intrinsic Motivation (IM): Divided into three subscales: IM to Know, IM to Accomplish, and IM to Experience Stimulation.
• Extrinsic Motivation (EM): Divided into three subscales representing varying degrees of internalization: Identified Regulation, Introjected Regulation, and External Regulation.
• Amotivation: Reflecting the absence of motivation or intent to act.

Subsequent versions, such as the SMS-II (2013), simplified the IM structure (combining the three intrinsic factors into a single Intrinsic Regulation score) and incorporated an Integrated Regulation subscale, which represents the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation, aligning the scale more closely with contemporary SDT models.

Validity

The validity of the SMS has been extensively examined across numerous studies. Initial validation of the 28-item SMS (1995) provided support for its seven-factor structure using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), demonstrating that the factors align with the theoretical tenets of SDT. Furthermore, the instrument has shown strong construct validity, with scores correlating predictably with related psychological constructs (e.g., perceived competence, autonomy support, persistence).

The revised versions (SMS-6 and SMS-II) were developed largely to address conceptual and statistical issues in the original scale. The SMS-II (Pelletier et al., 2013) demonstrated improved factorial validity by reducing the number of intrinsic motivation subfactors and explicitly incorporating the Integrated Regulation subscale, confirming its hierarchical structure and superior fit relative to the original model. Studies have consistently shown that autonomous forms of motivation (IM, Identified, Integrated) predict positive outcomes (e.g., persistence), while controlled forms (Introjected, External) and Amotivation predict negative outcomes (e.g., burnout or dropout), supporting its predictive validity.

Reliability

The reliability of the SMS and its subsequent revisions is generally high. The original SMS demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with most subscales typically yielding Cronbach’s alpha coefficients above the acceptable threshold of 0.70. Test-retest reliability has also been established, indicating stability of motivational scores over time.

The revisions focused on enhancing reliability, particularly in differentiating between conceptually adjacent factors. The SMS-II, for instance, exhibits robust internal consistency across its six subscales (Intrinsic, Integrated, Identified, Introjected, External, and Amotivated Regulation), confirming its suitability for measuring the motivation continuum with greater precision than earlier versions.

Factor Analysis

The original 28-item SMS was initially validated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to support a seven-factor structure. However, subsequent research often found that the three intrinsic motivation factors (To Know, To Accomplish, To Experience Stimulation) were highly correlated and often failed to separate distinctly in diverse athlete populations, suggesting a potential lack of discriminant validity among these subscales.

This led to the development of the Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) by Mallett et al. (2007), which proposed a six-factor model. This version aimed to improve the structure by combining the intrinsic factors and introducing Integrated Regulation, although its structure remains a subject of ongoing debate. The most rigorous revision, the SMS-II (Pelletier et al., 2013), confirmed a clear six-factor model (Intrinsic Regulation, Integrated Regulation, Identified Regulation, Introjected Regulation, External Regulation, and Amotivated Regulation), which demonstrated superior statistical fit and better alignment with modern SDT conceptualizations, particularly by confirming the separation of Integrated Regulation from the other extrinsic forms.

Instrument

Test Type: Psychometric Self-Report Questionnaire

Format: Likert scale (Typically a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 = Does not apply at all to 5 = Applies exactly)

Language Available: English, French (and numerous other translated versions used worldwide)

Population Group: Athletes and individuals engaged in sport or physical activity

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (typically 15 years and older)

Population Details: Applicable to competitive athletes, recreational participants, and various levels of sport commitment (e.g., elite, college, amateur).

Test Methodology: Participants respond to items prefaced by the prompt “Why Do You Practice Your Sport?” by indicating the degree to which each statement corresponds to their reasons for participation, using the specified 5-point Likert scale.

Keywords

Sport scale, Motivational regulation, Self-regulation, Sport performance, Exercise psychology, Athlete dropout, Persistence, Integrated Regulation, Introjected Regulation

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Information not provided in the source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Information not provided in the source content.

Correspondence Address: Information not provided in the source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) was published in 1995 (Pelletier et al.). The Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) was published in 2007 (Mallett et al.). The Revised Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-II) was validated in 2013 (Pelletier et al.).

The instrument is generally available for non-commercial academic research use, often requiring direct permission from the primary authors (L.G. Pelletier or R.J. Vallerand). The instrument document for the original scale can be found here: http://www.lrcs.uqam.ca/scales/ems28_en.doc.

The validation study for the SMS-II can be downloaded as a PDF here: http://www.lrcs.uqam.ca/papers/Pelletier2013.pdf.

The validation paper for the SMS-6 by Mallett et al. (2007) is available via this PDF link: Mallett et al‚ 2007 PDF.

Reference’s

• Vallerand‚ R.J.‚ Pelletier‚ L. G.‚ Blaise‚ M. R.‚ Briére‚ N. M.‚ Senécal‚ C.‚ & Valliéres‚ E. F. (1992) The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic‚ extrinsic and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement‚ 52‚ 1003–1019.

• Pelletier‚ L.‚ Fortier‚ M.‚ Vallerand‚ R.‚ Tuson‚ K.‚ Brière‚ N.‚ & Blais‚ M. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation‚ extrinsic motivation‚ and amotivation in sports: the sport motivation scale (SMS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology‚ 17‚ 35-54.

• Pelletier‚ L.G.‚ Fortier‚ M.S.‚ Vallerand‚ R.J.‚ & Briére‚ N.M. (2001) Associations among perceived autonomy support‚ forms of self-regulation‚ and persistence: a prospective study. Motivation and Emotion‚ 25‚ 279-306.

• Mallett‚ C. J.‚ Kawabata‚ M.‚ Newcombe‚ P.‚ Otero-Forero‚ A.‚ & Jackson‚ S. (2007). Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6): A revised six-factor sport motivation scale. Psychology of Sport and Exercise‚ 8‚ 600–614.

• Sarrazin‚ P.‚ Vallerand‚ R.J.‚ Guillet‚ E.‚ Pelletier‚ L.G.‚ & Cury‚ F. (2002) Motivation and dropout in female handballers: a 21-month prospective study. European Journal of Social Psychology‚ 32‚ 395-418.

• Sarrazin‚ P.‚ Vallerand‚ R.J.‚ Pelletier‚ L.G. (2007). The revised six-factor Sport Motivation Scale (Mallett‚ Kawabata‚ Newcombe‚ Otero-Forero‚ & Jackson‚ 2007): Something old‚ something new‚ and something borrowed. Psychology of Sport and Exercise‚ 8‚ 615–621

• Pelletier‚ L. G.‚ Rocchi‚ M. A.‚ Vallerand‚ R.J.‚ Deci‚ E. L.‚ Ryan‚ Richard M. (2013). Validation of the revised sport motivation scale (SMS-II). Psychology of Sport and Exercise‚ 14‚ 329-341.

Items of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Why Do You Practice Your Sport?

1. For the pleasure I feel in living exciting experiences.
2. For the pleasure it gives me to know more about the sport that I practice.
3. I used to have good reasons for doing sports‚ but now I am asking myself if I should continue doing it.
4. For the pleasure of discovering new training techniques.
5. I don’t know anymore; I have the impression that I am incapable of succeeding in this sport.
6. Because it allows me to be well regarded by people that I know.
7. Because‚ in my opinion‚ it is one of the best ways to meet people.
8. Because I feel a lot of personal satisfaction while mastering certain difficult training techniques.
9. Because it is absolutely necessary to do sports if one wants to be in shape.
10. For the prestige of being an athlete.
11. Because it is one of the best ways I have chosen to develop other aspects of myself.
12. For the pleasure I feel while improving some of my weak points.
13. For the excitement I feel when I am really involved in the activity.
14. Because I must do sports to feel good about myself.
15. For the satisfaction I experience while I am perfecting my abilities.
16. Because people around me think it is important to be in shape.
17. Because it is a good way to learn lots of things which could be useful to me in other areas of my life.
18. For the intense emotions that I feel while I am doing a sport that I like.
19. It is not clear to me anymore; I don’t really think my place is in sport.
20. For the pleasure that I feel while executing certain difficult movements.
21. Because I would feel bad if I was not taking time to do it.
22. To show others how good I am at my sport.
23. For the pleasure that I feel while learning training techniques that I have never tried before.
24. Because it is one of the best ways to maintain good relationships with my friends.
25. Because I like the feeling of being totally immersed in the activity.
26. Because I must do sports regularly.
27. For the pleasure of discovering new performance strategies.
28. I often ask myself; I can’t seem to achieve the goals that I set for myself.

Items of the Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6)

Mallett et al‚ 2007

1. For the excitement I feel when I am really involved in the activity
2. Because it’s part of the way in which I’ve chosen to live my life
3. Because it is a good way to learn lots of things which could be useful to me in other areas of my life
4. Because it allows me to be well regarded by people that I know
5. I don’t know anymore; I have the impression of being incapable of succeeding in this sport
6. Because I feel a lot of personal satisfaction while mastering certain difficult training techniques
7. Because it is absolutely necessary to do sports if one wants to be in shape
8. Because it is one of the best ways I have chosen to develop other aspects of my life
9. Because it is an extension of me
10. Because I must do sports to feel good about myself
11. For the prestige of being an athlete
12. I don’t know if I want to continue to invest my time and effort as much in my sport anymore
13. Because participation in my sport is consistent with my deepest principles
14. For the satisfaction I experience while I am perfecting my abilities
15. Because it is one of the best ways to maintain good relationships with my friends
16. Because I would feel bad if I was not taking time to do it
17. It is not clear to me anymore; I don’t really think my place is in sport
18. For the pleasure of discovering new performance strategies
19. For the material and/or social benefits of being an athlete
20. Because training hard will improve my performance
21. Because participation in my sport is an integral part of my life
22. I don’t seem to be enjoying my sport as much as I previously did
23. Because I must do sports regularly
24. To show others how good I am at my sport

Items of the Revised Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-II)

1. Because it gives me pleasure to learn more about my sport.
2. Because it is very interesting to learn how I can improve.
3. Because I find it enjoyable to discover new performance strategies.
4. Because practicing sports reflects the essence of whom I am.
5. Because through sport‚ I am living in line with my deepest principles.
6. Because participating in sport is an integral part of my life.
7. Because it is one of the best ways I have chosen to develop other aspects of myself.
8. Because I have chosen this sport as a way to develop myself.
9. Because I found it is a good way to develop aspects of myself that I value.
10. Because I would feel bad about myself if I did not take the time to do it.
11. Because I feel better about myself when I do.
12. Because I would not feel worthwhile if I did not.
13. Because people I care about would be upset with me if I did not.
14. Because people around me reward me when I do.
15. Because I think others would disapprove of me if I did not.
16. I used to have good reasons for doing sports‚ but now I am asking myself if I should continue.
17. I don’t know anymore; I have the impression that I am incapable of succeeding in this sport.
18. It is not clear to me anymore; I don’t really think my place is in sport.

Scoring and Subscales

The response format for all versions uses a 5-point Likert scale, where 1= Does not apply at all to 5= Applies exactly. The items are grouped into subscales reflecting the motivational continuum:

• Original SMS (7 Factors): Intrinsic motivation – to know (items 2‚ 4‚ 23‚ 27)‚ Intrinsic motivation – to accomplish (items 8‚ 12‚ 15‚ 20)‚ Intrinsic motivation – to experience stimulation (items 1‚ 13‚ 18‚ 25)‚ Extrinsic motivation – identified (items 7‚ 11‚ 17‚ 24)‚ Extrinsic motivation – introjected (items 9‚ 14‚ 21‚ 26)‚ Extrinsic motivation – external regulation (items 6‚ 10‚ 16‚ 22)‚ Amotivation (items 3‚ 5‚ 19‚ 28).
• SMS-6 (6 Factors): Amotivation (items 5‚ 12‚ 17‚ 22)‚ Identified Regulation (items 3‚ 8‚ 15‚ 20)‚ External Regulation (items 4‚ 11‚ 19‚ 24)‚ Integrated Regulation (items 2‚ 9‚ 13‚ 21)‚ Introjected Regulation (items 7‚ 10‚ 16‚ 23). Intrinsic Motivation (items 1‚ 6‚ 14‚ and 18).
• Revised Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-II) (6 Factors): Intrinsic regulation (items 1‚ 2‚ 3)‚ Integrated regulation (items 4‚ 5‚ 6)‚ Identified regulation (items 7‚ 8‚ 9)‚ Introjected regulation (items 10‚ 11‚ 12)‚ External regulation (items 13‚ 14‚ 15)‚ Amotivated regulation (items 16‚ 17 and 18).