Computer Anxiety Rating Scale – CARS

Abstract

The Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) is a foundational psychological instrument developed in 1987 by Heinssen, Glass, and Knight. Its core function is to empirically measure the intensity of apprehension, fear, and discomfort—collectively known as Computer Anxiety—experienced by individuals when they interact with or contemplate the use of computers. This 19-item, self-report measure utilizes a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree.

CARS provides researchers and practitioners with a standardized tool for quantifying psychological barriers that significantly impact technology adoption, performance, and overall digital literacy across diverse settings, including education and the workplace. The instrument is scored such that higher cumulative totals correspond to elevated levels of computer-related anxiety. To ensure robust measurement and mitigate response bias, the scale incorporates several reverse-scored items that assess positive confidence and comfort alongside negative attitudes.

Keywords

Computer Anxiety, Technophobia, Psychological Scale, CARS, Psychometrics, Self-Efficacy, Technology Adoption, Likert scale, Measurement, Digital Literacy

Authors

R.K. Heinssen, C.R. Glass, L.A. Knight

[quads id=5]

Purpose

The primary objective behind the development of the CARS was the empirical assessment and quantification of Computer Anxiety. Prior to its introduction, such apprehension was often treated anecdotally; the CARS provided a standardized, reliable method for measuring the intensity of negative emotional and cognitive reactions related to computer use. This standardization was crucial for establishing computer anxiety as a distinct and measurable psychological construct worthy of scientific investigation.

Beyond basic measurement, the scale serves a vital practical role in diagnostic screening and intervention planning. By quantifying the level of technological apprehension, researchers and clinicians can effectively identify individuals—such as students or employees—who may benefit significantly from targeted interventions designed to reduce anxiety, enhance digital competency, and ultimately improve comfort and performance in technology-mediated environments.

Furthermore, the CARS is widely utilized as a key research instrument for exploring complex relationships between computer anxiety and critical variables. These variables include academic achievement, vocational training success, job satisfaction, and general acceptance of new technologies. Its established psychometric properties make it suitable for longitudinal studies tracking changes in attitude toward technology over time.

Construct

The CARS is specifically designed to measure the construct of Computer Anxiety. This construct encompasses a set of affective (emotional) and cognitive (thought-based) responses characterized by feelings of fear, generalized apprehension, and profound discomfort associated with interacting with computers or anticipating potential negative consequences from such interaction.

The anxiety measured by the CARS is often rooted in two core psychological mechanisms. The first is a perceived lack of self-efficacy or competence, leading the individual to believe they lack the skills necessary to control or operate the technology effectively. The second is a catastrophic fear of making irreversible errors, such as accidentally destroying large volumes of data or causing costly technical malfunctions, which results in avoidance behavior.

The 19 items of the scale comprehensively sample various facets of this construct. These include specific insecurities (e.g., interpreting technical output), fear of damaging equipment or data, generalized uneasiness, and resultant avoidance tendencies. The inclusion of positively worded, reverse-scored items pertaining to confidence and motivation ensures that the scale captures the full spectrum of attitudes, providing a holistic measure of the respondent’s overall relationship with computer technology.

Validity

The initial development and validation of the CARS, documented by Heinssen, Glass, and Knight in 1987, established strong evidence for its psychometric soundness. Rigorous statistical analysis confirmed robust construct validity, indicating that the 19 items coherently and accurately reflect the intended underlying psychological construct of computer anxiety.

Subsequent research across decades has consistently reinforced the CARS’s validity, demonstrating strong concurrent validity. The scale exhibits significant correlations with other established psychological measures, including general trait anxiety, specific measures of computer self-efficacy (inversely correlated), and negative attitudes toward technology. This consistent pattern of correlations confirms that the CARS measures what it intends to measure and successfully differentiates between individuals who are technologically comfortable and those who experience high levels of computer-related fear.

The demonstrated validity allows the CARS to be used reliably for predictive purposes, such as forecasting potential difficulties an individual might face during computer training or predicting low engagement with digital tools in occupational settings.

Reliability

The CARS exhibits excellent psychometric properties concerning its reliability, particularly internal consistency. In the original standardization cohort, and consistently across the vast majority of subsequent research applications, the scale has reported an exemplary Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, typically exceeding the 0.90 threshold. This high level of internal reliability strongly suggests that the 19 distinct items are homogenous and consistently measure the same singular dimension of technological apprehension.

Furthermore, the scale has demonstrated robust test-retest reliability across various populations and over short to moderate time intervals. This stability indicates that the CARS is not measuring a fleeting emotional state but rather enduring individual differences in dispositional computer anxiety. This stability supports its utility as a dependable tool for both academic research and clinical diagnostic screening where consistent measurement of a trait is required.

Factor Analysis

The initial factor analysis conducted during the scale’s development in 1987 by Heinssen et al. strongly suggested that the CARS is primarily unidimensional. This crucial finding means the scale measures a single, overarching construct of generalized computer anxiety, justifying the standard practice of using a single total score to represent the severity of the respondent’s anxiety level.

While later exploratory studies have sometimes investigated multi-factor structures—occasionally attempting to separate affective components (e.g., fear and dislike) from cognitive components (e.g., perceived lack of skill or confidence)—the predominant and most widely accepted interpretation continues to rely on the robust, general factor loading. The careful balancing of negatively worded anxiety items and positively worded confidence items (which are reverse-scored) ensures that the cumulative total score provides a comprehensive and reliable index of overall discomfort.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychological inventory

Format: 19 items administered using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Eight items are reverse-scored (*).

Language Available: Original English; widely translated and adapted for cross-cultural research studies.

Population Group: General population, students, employees, and individuals undergoing computer training or technological orientation.

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (typically 16 years and older).

Population Details: Developed and initially validated using samples composed primarily of college students.

Test Methodology: Total scores are calculated by summing the responses across all 19 items, ensuring that the 8 positively worded items are accurately reverse-scored (e.g., 1 becomes 5, 5 becomes 1). Higher total scores indicate higher levels of Computer Anxiety.

Keywords

Psychometrics, Heinssen, Glass, Knight, Self-report, Psychological measurement, Technology fear, Computer skills, Unidimensional, Test-Retest

[quads id=5]

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A

Correspondence Address: N/A

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) was developed and published in 1987. The authors explicitly stated that the test may be used for non-commercial research purposes, provided that proper citation is given to the original publication (Heinssen, Glass, & Knight, 1987). The scale is generally considered freely available for academic and non-commercial research use with appropriate attribution, meaning no formal fee is typically required for use in scholarly contexts.

An external resource related to the scale or its authors is noted here: http://www.yorku.ca/rokada/

Reference’s

• Heinssen, R.K., Glass, C.R., & Knight, L.A. (1987). Assessing computer anxiety: Development and validation of the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale. Computers in Human Behavior, 3, 49-59.

[quads id=5]

Items of the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale – CARS

Instructions: For each statement, decide whether you disagree or agree with the statement using the following 5 point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). In the box to the right of each statement, fill in the number on the 5 point scale that best describes your level of disagreement or agreement.

Strongly Disagree (1) — 2 — 3 — 4 — Strongly Agree (5)

Note: * indicates items that are reverse-scored. Higher scores indicate higher levels of computer anxiety.

1. I feel insecure about my ability to interpret a computer printout.
2. I look forward to using a computer in my job. *
3. I do not think I would be able to learn a computer programming language.
4. The challenge of learning about computers is exciting. *
5. I am confident that I can learn computer skills. *
6. Anyone can learn to use a computer if they are patient and motivated. *
7. Learning to operate computers is like learning any new skill – the more you practice, the better you become. *
8. I am afraid that if I begin to use computers I will become dependent upon them and lose some of my reasoning skills.
9. I am sure that with time and practice I will be as comfortable working with computers as I am in working with a typewriter. *
10. I feel that I will be able to keep up with the advances happening in the computer field. *
11. I dislike working with machines that are smarter than I am.
12. I feel apprehensive about using computers.
13. I have difficulty in understanding the technical aspects of computers.
14. It scares me to think that I could cause the computer to destroy a large amount of data by hitting the wrong key.
15. I hesitate to use a computer for fear of making mistakes that I cannot correct.
16. You have to be a genius to understand all the special keys contained on most computer terminals.
17. If given the opportunity, I would like to learn about and use computers. *
18. I have avoided computers because they are unfamiliar and somewhat intimidating to me.
19. I feel computers are necessary tools in both educational and work settings. *