Augmented Reality Intention–Measurement Model Questionnaire

Abstract

The Augmented Reality Intention—Measurement Model (Saleem et al., 2023) is an 18-item instrument developed to quantify the psychological factors influencing university students’ intention to use augmented reality (AR) applications within e-learning environments.

The scale is structured around six core constructs and is theoretically derived from the foundational principles of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1985). The instrument was initially validated using a sample of university students in Pakistan during the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, providing timely data on technology adoption in rapidly shifting educational contexts. The psychometric evaluation demonstrated strong results across factor analysis, reliability, and validity measures.

Keywords

Theory of Planned Behavior, Measurement Model, Augmented Reality-Hedonic Value, Augmented Reality-Utilitarian Value, Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control, Intention Towards E-Learning, Augmented Reality Apps, College Students, Virtual Classrooms.

Authors

Saleem, Muhammad, Kamarudin, Suzilawati, Shoaib, Haneen Mohammad, Nasar, Asim.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this measurement model is to empirically investigate the factors that drive university students’ intention to adopt and utilize augmented reality apps specifically for e-learning environments. This research provides a structured model for assessing how utilitarian and hedonic values derived from AR technology influence core behavioral predictors.

By integrating technology acceptance factors (AR value) into the established TPB framework, the scale offers a robust tool for researchers and educators seeking to understand and predict the successful integration of novel technologies in remote or hybrid education.

Construct

The instrument is based on the foundational concepts of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which posits that behavioral intention is predicted by attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. The model adapts this by focusing specifically on the context of AR technology use in education.

The scale measures six distinct constructs using a total of 18 items:

• Augmented Reality-Hedonic Value
• Augmented Reality-Utilitarian Value
• Attitude (towards using AR for e-learning)
• Subjective Norms (regarding AR use)
• Perceived Behavioral Control (over AR use)
• Intention Towards E-Learning (using AR)

Validity

Convergent Validity: Convergent validity was established successfully. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for all constructs ranged from 0.636 to 0.819, comfortably exceeding the recommended acceptance threshold of 0.5. Furthermore, the Composite Reliability (CR) values across all constructs ranged from 0.680 to 0.913, surpassing the generally accepted minimum level of 0.6.

Discriminant Validity: Discriminant validity was confirmed by ensuring that the square root of the AVE for each construct was greater than the correlation coefficients between that construct and all other constructs in the model, following established criteria (Hair et al., 2014, 2010).

Reliability

Internal Consistency: The internal consistency reliability of the instrument was found to be strong. Cronbach’s alpha values for all six constructs ranged from 0.702 to 0.885, all of which are above the widely accepted reliability criterion of 0.7.

Factor Analysis

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA): Confirmatory Factor Analysis was employed to validate the underlying structure of the measurement model. Item loadings across all constructs met the criterion threshold value of 0.7, indicating good internal consistency and structural integrity.

The overarching Augmented Reality construct was treated as a higher-order factor. Within this structure, the utilitarian value and hedonic value components showed exceptionally high loadings (0.981 for utilitarian value and 0.980 for hedonic value), confirming their strong representation of the overall AR experience construct.

Instrument

Test Type: Original Inventory/Questionnaire

Format: Five-point Likert scales are utilized for all 18 items. The rating scale ranges from 5 (representing ‘extremely likely’) to 1 (representing ‘extremely unlikely’).

Language Available: English

Population Group: Human (Male and Female)

Age Group: Adulthood (18 years & older)

Population Details: Respondents were university students in Pakistan, surveyed during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Test Methodology: The comprehensive methodological approach included Test Validity, Convergent Validity, Discriminant Validity, Test Reliability, Internal Consistency measurement, Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis, and overall Measurement Model evaluation.

Keywords

Augmented Reality Apps, E-Learning Attitudes, College Students, Educational Measures, Student Attitudes, Virtual Classrooms, Reasoned Action, Electronic Learning, Measurement Models, Human Computer Interaction Measures, Augmented Reality, Technology Acceptance.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier:

• Saleem, Muhammad: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0325-217X
• Nasar, Asim: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0053-2595

Affiliation Email addresses:

• Saleem, Muhammad: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Azman Hashim International Business School
• Kamarudin, Suzilawati: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Azman Hashim International Business School
• Shoaib, Haneen Mohammad: College of Business Administration, University of Business and Technology
• Nasar, Asim: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Azman Hashim International Business School
• Saleem, Muhammad (Email): [email protected]

Correspondence Address:

• Saleem, Muhammad: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Azman Hashim International Business School, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 54100, [email protected]

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions: Contact Publisher

Fee: No

Test Year: 2023

Reference’s

Saleem, M., Kamarudin, S., Shoaib, H. M., & Nasar, A. (2023). Influence of augmented reality app on intention towards e-learning amidst COVID-19 pandemic. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(5), 3083–3097. doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1919147

Items of the Augmented Reality Intention–Measurement Model Questionnaire

The Augmented Reality Intention–Measurement Model consists of 18 items, structured into six subscales:

• Augmented reality-Hedonic value
• Augmented reality-Utilitarian value
• Attitude
• Subjective norms
• Perceived behavioral control
• Intention towards e-learning

The specific items are available. No data is Available.

Augmented Reality

AR: Utilitarian Value

• UVL1. Using this augmented reality app improves my performance in evaluating the coursework during e-learning.

• UVL2. I find this augmented reality app to be useful for e-learning.

• UVL3. Using this augmented reality app enhances my effectiveness in e-learning.

AR: Hedonic Value

• HVL1. The e-learning experience with this augmented reality app makes me feel good.

• HVL2. The e-learning experience with this augmented reality app is exciting.

• HVL3. The e-learning experience with this augmented reality app is enjoyable.

Attitude

• ATU1. I would like my e-learning more if I used this augmented reality app.

• ATU2. Using this augmented reality app in my e-learning would be a pleasant experience.

• ATU3. Using this augmented reality app in my e-learning is a wise idea.

Subjective Norm

• SN1. Most people who are important to me think it would be sufficient to use this augmented reality app for e-learning.

• SN2. I think other students in my classes would be willing to adapt this augmented reality app for e-learning.

• SN3. Most people who are important to me would favour using this augmented reality app for e-learning.

Perceived Behavioural Control

• BC1. I have a sufficient extent of knowledge to use this augmented reality app for e-learning.

• BC2. I have a sufficient extent of control to adopt this augmented reality app for e-learning.

• BC3. I have sufficient self-confidence to decide to adopt this augmented reality app for e-learning.

Intention Towards e-Learning

• INT1. I predict I would use augmented reality apps for my e-learning.

• INT2. I plan to use augmented reality apps for e-learning in the future.

• INT3. I intend to adopt augmented reality apps for e-learning.

Note: Items are rated from 5=extremely likely to 1=extremely unlikely.