Compulsive Eating Scale (CES)

Abstract

The Compulsive Eating Scale (CES) is an established, concise, self-report psychological scale developed by D. M. Kagan and R. L. Squires in 1984. Its core function is to quantitatively assess the frequency and intensity of behaviors characteristic of compulsive eating, defined primarily by a subjective loss of control over food consumption. This behavior is often triggered by negative emotional states, such as boredom, loneliness, or distress, rather than physiological hunger cues.

Comprising just eight items, the CES utilizes a frequency-based response format to screen for tendencies related to binge eating and other disordered eating patterns. It has proven valuable across various research and clinical settings, particularly for assessing risk among non-clinical populations like college students and adolescents, providing a rapid and reliable measure of uncontrolled eating behaviors.

Keywords

Compulsive Eating Scale, CES, Kagan and Squires, binge eating, loss of control, overeating, psychological assessment, eating disorders, self-report scale, emotional eating

Authors

D. M. Kagan, R. L. Squires

Purpose

The primary objective of the Compulsive Eating Scale (CES) is the quantitative measurement of psychological and behavioral markers linked to uncontrolled and emotionally driven food consumption. Specifically, the scale seeks to identify individuals who frequently engage in eating patterns that are decoupled from actual physiological hunger, instead responding to internal states such as emotional distress, stress, or a perceived lack of personal control over food intake.

Introduced during a period of rising interest in the psychological underpinnings of disordered eating, the CES was crucial for early research focusing on the relationship between psychological factors—including stress and hostility—and the development of compulsive habits in younger populations, notably university students. It remains a quick, focused, and reliable instrument for clinicians and researchers needing to gauge the severity of compulsive eating tendencies.

Construct

The CES is designed to measure the construct of Compulsive Eating. This construct is characterized by an overwhelming, often irresistible urge to consume food beyond the point of satiety, frequently resulting in rapid consumption, secrecy around eating, and subsequent feelings of guilt, shame, and a profound loss of control. The eight items of the scale are targeted to capture the core dimensions of this construct.

These dimensions include eating in reaction to negative affect (e.g., loneliness or nervousness), consuming food until physical discomfort is achieved, and engaging in impulsive or ritualistic behaviors related to food (such as consuming leftovers). While closely related to clinical Binge Eating Disorder (BED), as defined in the DSM-5, the CES functions as a measure of the frequency and emotional causation of the behavior, rather than a tool for definitive diagnosis of a full-blown eating disorder. Its emphasis lies squarely on the lack of control and the emotional triggers that drive compulsive consumption.

Validity

Empirical research evaluating the validity of the CES largely supports its effectiveness in accurately measuring compulsive eating behavior. Initial validation studies successfully established both concurrent and construct validity. This was achieved by demonstrating statistically significant correlations between CES scores and scores derived from other established instruments measuring disordered eating, such as those focusing on dieting severity and body image dissatisfaction.

Further cross-cultural validation, such as the 2016 study by Mostafavi and colleagues on the Persian version, confirmed the structural validity of the CES, particularly among clinical groups like overweight or obese women. This research showed that CES scores related meaningfully to objective measures like body composition and specific dietary intake patterns, reinforcing its utility in assessing clinically relevant eating pathologies. Furthermore, the scale exhibits strong discriminant validity, demonstrating its ability to distinguish reliably between individuals who report disordered eating patterns and those who do not.

Reliability

The Compulsive Eating Scale (CES) consistently demonstrates satisfactory internal consistency, a critical indicator of statistical reliability. The foundational studies conducted by Kagan and Squires in 1984 reported acceptable Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, confirming that the scale’s eight items cohesively measure the intended underlying construct of compulsive eating.

Subsequent validation efforts, including translations into different languages, have reaffirmed these initial findings. For example, the 2016 validation of the Persian version reported a strong internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.86). This consistent level of reliability across diverse cultural and clinical populations underscores the CES’s stability, ensuring that it provides consistent results when assessing the frequency and severity of compulsive eating behaviors.

Factor Analysis

While the CES is typically utilized and scored as a brief, unidimensional measure designed to capture the overall severity of compulsive eating, its underlying factor structure has been subject to exploration across various research samples. The scale was constructed with the intention of focusing on a single, dominant factor representing the global loss of control and the emotional motivation behind excessive consumption.

However, specific factor analysis outcomes can vary depending on the population studied. Some analyses suggest that the items may cluster into thematic groupings, such as a factor related to emotional eating (e.g., items concerning loneliness or upset) and another related to behavioral impulsivity (e.g., items involving rapid eating or finishing leftovers). Despite these potential thematic divisions, the standard methodology for the CES remains the summation of all eight items to produce a singular total score that reflects the comprehensive severity of the compulsive eating construct.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Screening tool

Format: Paper-and-pencil or digital administration. The scale comprises 8 items rated on a 5-point Likert-type frequency scale.

Language Available: English, Persian, and potentially other languages following translation and validation efforts.

Population Group: Clinical and non-clinical populations demonstrating a propensity for disordered eating behaviors.

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (primarily validated on college students and older demographics).

Population Details: Originally validated on a sample of college students. Subsequent research has expanded its use to adolescent populations and specific clinical groups, such as overweight or obese women seeking weight management treatment.

Test Methodology: Respondents are required to rate the frequency with which they engage in each of the eight listed compulsive eating behaviors. The calculation involves summing the scores of the responses, where a higher aggregate score signifies a greater severity of compulsive eating tendencies.

Keywords

Compulsive Eating Scale, CES, disordered eating, self-report, psychological instrument, binge eating, clinical assessment, internal consistency, validity, reliability, emotional triggers

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided.

Correspondence Address: Not provided.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Compulsive Eating Scale (CES) was first published in 1984 by developers Kagan and Squires. Given its inclusion in authoritative sourcebooks, such as Fischer and Corcoran’s volume on clinical measures, the scale is often accessible for non-commercial research and educational use. However, researchers are strongly advised to verify specific usage permissions and any associated fees directly with the original copyright holders or relevant publishers, such as Oxford University Press, which published the primary sourcebook reference.

The instrument is generally considered accessible for academic and clinical research purposes. The original instrument documentation can be found in a downloadable document format here: http://www.moray.gov.uk/downloads/file93345.doc

Reference’s

• Fischer, Joel., Corcoran, Kevin J. (2007). Measures for Clinical Practice and research: A sourcebook. (4th ed.). NY. Oxford University Pr. Vol. 1, Page (s): 500-501.

• Kagan, D. M., & Squires, R. L. (1984). Compulsive eating, dieting, stress, and hostility among college students. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25(3), 213-220.

• Kagan, D. M., Squires, R. L. (1984). Eating disorders among adolescents: patterns and prevalence. Adolescence. 19 (73), 15–29.

• Kagan, D. M., and Squires, R. L. (1984). Compulsive Eating Scale (CES). In Fischer, Joel., Corcoran, Kevin J. (2007). Measures for Clinical Practice and research: A sourcebook. (4th ed.). NY. Oxford University Pr. Vol. 1, Page (s): 500-501.

• Mostafavi, S. A., Keshavarz, S. A., Mohammadi, M. R., Hosseini, S., Eshraghian, M. R., Hosseinzadeh, P., Chamari, M., Sari, Z., Akhondzadeh, S. (2016). Reliability and Validity of the Persian Version of Compulsive Eating Scale (CES) in Overweight or Obese Women and Its Relationship with Some Body Composition and Dietary Intake Variables. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 11(4), 250-256.

Items of the Compulsive Eating Scale (CES)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. Eat because you are feeling lonely

2. Feel completely out of control when it comes to food

3. Eat so much that your stomach hurts

4. Eat too much because you are upset or nervous

5. Eat too much because you are bored

6. Go out with friends for the purpose of over-stuffing yourselves with food

7. Eat so much food so fast that you don’t know how much you ate or how it tasted

8. Get out of bed, go into the kitchen, and finish the remains of some delicious food, because you know it was there.

Response Options: a. Never, b. Once or twice a year, c. Once a month, d. Once a week, e. More than once a week