Situation Temptation Scales – Smoking Version

Abstract

The Situation Temptation Scales- Smoking Version (STS-S) is a specialized psychometric instrument designed to assess the level of temptation experienced by individuals who are attempting or considering smoking cessation. Developed within the framework of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM), the scale identifies specific high-risk situations that threaten abstinence. It is available in two validated formats, a comprehensive 20-item version and a shorter 9-item version, both structured around core factors representing emotional, social, and habitual triggers for relapse. The STS-S is crucial for assessing perceived risk and tailoring intervention strategies to improve the chances of successful long-term abstinence.

Keywords

Smoking cessation, relapse, temptation, Transtheoretical Model, self-efficacy, negative affect, addictive behavior, psychometrics.

Authors

Wayne F. Velicer, Carlo C. DiClemente, Joseph S. Rossi, James O. Prochaska.

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the STS-S is to measure an individual’s perceived risk of smoking in specific environmental and internal contexts. By quantifying the strength of temptation across various scenarios, the scale provides clinicians and researchers with crucial insights into the factors most likely to trigger a relapse event during the process of smoking cessation.

The instrument is essential for tailoring intervention strategies, particularly within the Action and Maintenance stages of the TTM, helping participants identify and prepare for their highest-risk situations. This measurement is often used in conjunction with assessments of self-efficacy, as the two constructs are highly predictive of successful behavior change outcomes.

Construct

The STS-S measures the construct of Situational Temptation, defined as the intensity of the desire or urge to engage in the target behavior (smoking) when exposed to specific high-risk cues. This construct is central to addiction models and is inversely related to Self-Efficacy, meaning that as temptation increases, confidence in maintaining abstinence tends to decrease.

The temptation construct is multidimensional, encompassing three major domains identified through factor analysis: Negative Affect (temptation driven by distress or emotional crisis), Social/Positive (temptation driven by social situations or positive celebratory moods), and Habitual/Craving (temptation driven by routine, physiological dependence, or immediate cravings).

Validity

The scale possesses strong theoretical validity, being grounded firmly in the principles of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM). Its structure aligns with established findings regarding high-risk situations that precede relapse in addictive behaviors. The concurrent use of the STS-S and measures of Self-Efficacy provides evidence of construct validity, as these two measures are expected to correlate negatively and predict an individual’s stage of change and progression through smoking cessation.

Reliability

The STS-S demonstrates high internal consistency, particularly within its derived factor structures. Based on the 20-item version described by Velicer et al. (1990), the following Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were reported for the subscales, indicating excellent reliability:

• Negative Affect: .95
• Social/Positive: .86
• Habit/Addictive: .80

These high reliability scores confirm that the items within each subscale consistently measure the intended domain of temptation, supporting the instrument’s overall psychometric quality.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis of the 20-item version revealed a clear, three-factor structure of situational temptation for smoking. This structure provides a nuanced understanding of the triggers faced by smokers attempting cessation. The three primary factors identified are:

• Negative Affect: This factor captures temptation stemming from internal emotional distress, conflict, anger, depression, or crisis.
• Social/Positive: This factor captures temptation arising from external social environments, celebration, relaxation, or exposure to others who are smoking.
• Habitual/Craving: This factor captures temptation driven by physiological urges, established routine behaviors (e.g., morning habits), or the cognitive realization of having abstained for a period.

The shorter 9-item version maintains this three-factor structure, utilizing a subset of items that best represent each dimension (Negative Affect: 3, 6, 9; Social/Positive: 1, 4, 7; Habitual/Craving: 2, 5, 8), making it suitable for rapid assessment or clinical screening.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychometric scale.

Format: Available in 20-item and 9-item versions. Responses are measured on a 5-point Likert scale: 1=Not at all tempted, 2=Not very tempted, 3=Moderately tempted, 4=Very tempted, 5=Extremely tempted.

Language Available: Primarily English (original development).

Population Group: Adult smokers or former smokers engaged in or contemplating smoking cessation.

Age Group: Adults (typically 18+).

Population Details: Originally validated on populations participating in smoking cessation programs, often utilized in research based on the Transtheoretical Model.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate how tempted they would be to smoke in each specific situation listed.

Keywords

Addiction, behavior change, TTM, smoking, temptation scale, self-efficacy, psychological assessment.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not provided in source).

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not provided in source).

Correspondence Address: N/A (Information not provided in source).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was formally introduced and validated in the 1990 publication by Velicer, DiClemente, Rossi, and Prochaska. The instrument is generally available for non-commercial research use. The scale can be found online at the Habits Lab website: http://habitslab.umbc.edu/situation-temptation-scales/.

The original PDF of the related research article detailing the scale and its psychometrics can be downloaded here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2827205/pdf/nihms177208.pdf.

Reference’s

• Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390–395.
• Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102–1114.
• Velicer, W.F., DiClemente, C.C., Rossi, J. S., Prochaska, J. O. (1990). Relapse situations and self-efficacy: An integrative model. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 271-283.

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Items of the Situation Temptation Scales- Smoking Version

20 item version

1. At a bar or cocktail lounge ha‎ving a drink.
2. When I am desiring a cigarette.
3. When things are not going the way I want and I am frustrated.
4. With my spouse or close friend who is smoking.
5. When there are arguments and conflicts with my family.
6. When I am happy and celebrating.
7. When I am very angry about something or someone.
8. When I would experience an emotional crisis‚ such as an accident or a death in the family.
9. When I see someone smoking and enjoying it.
10. Over coffee while talking and relaxing.
11. When I realize that quitting smoking is an extremely difficult task for me.
12. When I am craving a cigarette.
13. When I first get up in the morning.
14. When I feel I need a lift.
15. When I begin to let down on my concern about my health and am less physically active.
16. With friends at a party.
17. When I wake up in the morning and face a tough day.
18. When I am extremely depressed.
19. When I am extremely anxious and stressed.
20. When I realize I haven’t smoked for a while.

9 item version

1. With friends at a party.
2. When I first get up in the morning.
3. When I am very anxious and stressed.
4. Over coffee while talking and relaxing.
5. When I feel I need a lift.
6. When I am very angry about something or someone.
7. With my spouse or close friend who is smoking.
8. When I realize I haven’t smoked for a while.
9. When things are not going my way and I am frustrated.