Dissociative Experiences Scale

Abstract

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) is a widely utilized 28-item self-report questionnaire designed to quantitatively measure the frequency of dissociative experiences in individuals. Developed by Kenneth S. Bowers and Ernest R. Coons in 1979, and subsequently revised as the DES II by Carlson and Putnam (1993), the instrument provides a reliable assessment of symptoms ranging from mild absorption to severe depersonalization and amnesia. The DES is a crucial screening tool employed extensively in both academic research and clinical settings for identifying individuals who may suffer from dissociative disorders or related trauma-based psychopathology.

Keywords

Dissociation, Dissociative Experiences Scale, DES, Self-report scale, Psychological assessment, Dissociative symptoms, Dissociative Identity Disorder, Trauma, Depersonalization

Authors

Kenneth S. Bowers, Ernest R. Coons (Original 1979); Eve B. Carlson, Frank W. Putnam (DES II Revision 1993)

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Dissociative Experiences Scale is to provide a standardized, quantifiable measure of the frequency and severity of non-pathological and pathological dissociative experiences. It serves as an effective screening instrument, particularly in clinical populations, to identify individuals who exhibit high levels of dissociation that warrant further diagnostic evaluation for conditions such as Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) or other specified dissociative disorders.

Furthermore, the DES is indispensable in research for studying the prevalence of dissociation across various populations, including those with histories of trauma, and for exploring the relationship between dissociative phenomena and other psychological disorders, such as borderline personality disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The scale allows clinicians and researchers to monitor symptom severity over time, aiding in treatment planning and outcome assessment.

Construct

The DES measures the construct of dissociation, which is defined as a mental process involving a disconnection or compartmentalization of one’s otherwise integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, and motor control. Historically, the concept was formalized by Pierre Janet in the late 19th century, linking it to psychological symptoms arising from traumatic experiences.

The scale captures four primary clusters of dissociative symptoms, often identified through factor analysis: Amnesia (memory gaps for personal events or actions), Depersonalization/Derealization (feelings of detachment from self or surroundings), Absorption/Imaginative Involvement (intense focus leading to unawareness of the environment), and Identity Confusion/Alteration (feeling like different people or experiencing identity shifts). The DES measures the subjective frequency of these experiences on a continuum, recognizing that dissociation exists across a spectrum from common, everyday occurrences (like daydreaming) to severe, clinically significant symptoms.

Validity

The Dissociative Experiences Scale has demonstrated strong psychometric properties across numerous studies, supporting its validity as a measure of dissociative symptoms. Content validity is established by the items covering the broad range of dissociative phenomena recognized in diagnostic manuals like the DSM-5. Criterion validity is evidenced by the scale’s ability to differentiate between clinical populations (e.g., those diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorder) and non-clinical control groups.

Furthermore, studies investigating concurrent and discriminant validity have shown that DES scores correlate highly with other established measures of dissociation (concurrent validity) and show expected lower correlations with measures of non-dissociative psychopathology, such as anxiety or depression (discriminant validity), although some overlap with trauma measures is expected and observed. The DES II revision maintained this strong validity profile, confirming its utility across diverse research samples.

Reliability

The reliability of the DES is consistently reported as high, indicating that the scale provides stable and internally consistent measurements of dissociative phenomena. Measures of internal consistency, typically assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, generally fall in the 0.90 to 0.95 range, suggesting excellent homogeneity among the 28 items.

Test-retest reliability has also been established, demonstrating that scores remain stable over short periods, confirming the consistency of the measure over time. The high reliability of the DES makes it suitable not only for cross-sectional screening but also for longitudinal studies tracking changes in symptom frequency, such as during therapeutic intervention.

Factor Analysis

Although the DES was initially developed as a unidimensional scale measuring overall dissociation, extensive factor analysis has revealed a consistent multi-factor structure, which is crucial for interpreting specific symptom clusters. The most commonly replicated factor structure is a three-factor solution:

• Factor 1: Amnesia and Depersonalization/Derealization (Pathological Dissociation): This factor includes items related to severe memory loss, out-of-body experiences, and the sense that the world or self is unreal. This factor is often considered the strongest predictor of clinical dissociative disorders like DID.
• Factor 2: Absorption and Imaginative Involvement (Non-Pathological Dissociation): This factor includes items related to intense focus on internal fantasies or external stimuli (e.g., being absorbed in a movie) that results in unawareness of immediate surroundings.
• Factor 3: Identity Confusion/Alteration: This factor addresses feelings of being uncertain about one’s identity or acting like two different people.

The distinction between pathological dissociation (Factor 1) and non-pathological absorption (Factor 2) is particularly important for clinical interpretation, allowing researchers to isolate symptoms most strongly associated with severe psychopathology.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report inventory; Quantitative screening tool

Format: 28 items. The original DES used a 10-centimeter Visual Analogue Scale. The revised DES II (1993) uses an 11-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 0% (Never) to 100% (Always), indicating the percentage of time the experience occurs.

Language Available: English (Numerous translations are available globally due to its wide usage, including Dutch, Spanish, German, etc.)

Population Group: Clinical populations (e.g., psychiatric inpatients, trauma survivors) and general population samples.

Age Group: Adolescents (with appropriate modifications/versions, such as the A-DES) and Adults.

Population Details: The scale is highly sensitive in populations with histories of severe or chronic trauma, where dissociation is a common coping mechanism. It is also used to screen patients with complex PTSD and other trauma-related disorders.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate the frequency of specific experiences over their lifetime or recent past, leading to a total score (the mean of the 28 items) known as the DES score. Higher scores indicate greater frequency of dissociative experiences.

Keywords

Psychological assessment, Trauma, Depersonalization, Derealization, Screening tool, Amnesia, Identity confusion, Self-report questionnaire, Psychometrics

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Unknown

Affiliation Email addresses: Unknown

Correspondence Address: Unknown

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Test Year (Original): 1979 (Bowers & Coons)

Test Year (Revision): 1993 (Carlson & Putnam, DES II)

Permissions & Fee: The DES and DES II are widely available for use in research and clinical practice, often without a specific fee, though permissions may be required from the copyright holders (typically the authors or their affiliated institutions) for commercial use or distribution. For clinical use, the scale is generally considered to be in the public domain for non-commercial purposes.

Reference’s

The following references document the development, validation, and conceptual background of the scale:

• Bowers, K. S., & Coons, E. R. (1979). Scale for the assessment of reported dissociative experiences. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167(12), 888-895.
• Bernstein, E. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727– 735.
• Carlson, E. B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the dissociative experiences scale. Dissociation, 6, 16–27.
• Cardeña, E. (1994). The domain of dissociation. In S. J. Lynn & J. R. Rhue (Eds.), Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical aspects (pp. 1-17). New York: Guilford Press.
• Dell, P. F. (2006). Dissociation: A current overview. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29(4), 849-873.
• ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research (1992). Geneva: World Health Organization.
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
• International Society for the Study of Dissociation. (2013). ISSD Practice Guidelines for the Assessment of Dissociation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 14(4), 416-445.

Additional resources relating to the scale include:

• DES Information: http://socrates.berkeley.edu/ha‎vingkihlstrm/DES.htm
• The original PDF can be downloaded here: http://www.caleidoscoop.nl/pdfs/a-des.pdf
• Another PDF resource: https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1496/168_166.pdf?sequence=1

Items of the Dissociative Experiences Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

This questionnaire consists of 28 questions about experiences that you may have in your daily life. We are interested in how often you have these experiences. It is important‚ however‚ that your answers show how often these experiences happen to you when you are not under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

To answer the questions‚ please determine to what degree the experience described in the question applies to you and indicate the percentage of the time you have the experience:

(Never) 0%—10—20—30—40—50—60—70—80—90—100% (Always)

1. Some people have the experience of driving or riding in a car or bus or subway and suddenly realizing that they don’t remember Indicate what has happened during all or part of the trip. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
2. Some people find that sometimes they are listening to someone talk and they suddenly realize that they did not hear part or all of what was said. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
3. Some people have the experience of finding themselves in a place and ha‎ving no idea how they got there. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
4. Some people have the experience of finding themselves dressed in clothes that they don’t remember buying. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
5. Some people have the experience of finding new things among their belongings that they do not remember buying. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
6. Some people sometimes find that they are approached by people that they do not know who call them by another name or insist that they have met them before. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
7. Some people sometimes have the experience of feeling as though they are standing next to themselves or watching themselves do something and they actually see themselves as if they were looking at another person. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
8. Some people are told that they sometimes do not recognize friends or family members. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
9. Some people find that they have no memory for some important events in their lives (for example‚ a wedding or graduation). Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
10. Some people have the experience of being accused of lying when they do not think that they have lied. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
11. Some people have the experience of looking in a mirror and not recognizing themselves. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
12. Some people have the experience of feeling that other people‚ objects‚ and the world around them are not real. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
13. Some people sometimes have the experience of feeling that their body does not seem to belong to them. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
14. Some people have the experience of sometimes remembering a past event so vividly that they feel as if they were reliving that event. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
15. Some people have the experience of not being sure whether things that they remember happening really did happen or whether they just dreamed them. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
16. Some people have the experience of being in a familiar place but finding it strange and unfamiliar. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
17. Some people find that when they are watching television or a movie they become so absorbed in the story that they are unaware of other events happening around them. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
18. Some people sometimes find that they become so involved in a fantasy or daydream that it feels as though it were really happening to them. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
19. Some people find that they sometimes are able to ignore pain. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
20. Some people find that they sometimes sit staring off into space‚ thinking of nothing‚ and are not aware of the passage of time. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
21. Some people sometimes find that when they are alone they talk out loud to themselves. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
22. Some people find that in one situation they may act so differently compared with another situation that they feel almost as if they were two different people. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
23. Some people sometimes find that in certain situations they are able to do things with amazing ease and spontaneity that would usually be difficult for them (for example‚ sports‚ work‚ social situations‚ etc.). Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
24. Some people sometimes find that they cannot remember whether they have done something or have just thought about doing that thing (for example‚ not knowing whether they have just mailed a letter or have just thought about mailing it). Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
25. Some people find evidence that they have done things that they do not remember doing. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
26. Some people sometimes find writings‚ drawings‚ or notes among their belongings that they must have done but cannot remember doing. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
27. Some people sometimes find that they hear voices inside their head that tell them to do things or comment on things that they are doing. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.
28. Some people sometimes feel as if they are looking at the world through a fog so that people and objects appear far away or unclear. Indicate what percentage of the time this happens to you.