Self–Other Four Immeasurable Scale (SOFI)

Abstract

The Self–Other Four Immeasurable Scale (SOFI) is a psychometric instrument developed by Kraus and Sears (2009) designed to measure affective and behavioral dispositions related to the Four Immeasurables (Brahma-viharas) derived from Buddhist philosophy. These core concepts include loving kindness (Mettā), compassion (Karuṇā), sympathetic joy (Muditā), and equanimity (Upekṣā). The SOFI scale uniquely assesses these dispositions by differentiating between feelings and actions directed toward the self versus those directed toward others, providing a nuanced perspective on both positive and negative interpersonal and intrapersonal states.

Keywords

Self–Other Four Immeasurable Scale, SOFI, loving kindness, compassion, self-compassion, Buddhist psychology, equanimity, psychological measurement, positive psychology.

Authors

Kraus, S., Sears, S.

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the SOFI scale is to provide researchers and clinicians with a reliable and valid tool for quantifying psychological constructs that are central to Buddhist ethical teachings. Specifically, the scale aims to operationalize the often abstract concepts of the Four Immeasurables, allowing for their systematic study within Western psychological frameworks. By separating self-directed and other-directed items, the scale provides insight into an individual’s balance of positive regard and negative affect toward themselves and the external world.

This instrument is particularly useful for assessing the outcomes of contemplative practices, such as mindfulness or loving kindness meditation, which explicitly target the cultivation of these immeasurable qualities. The scale facilitates the empirical investigation of how these spiritual practices translate into measurable psychological and behavioral changes.

Construct

The SOFI scale measures four distinct, yet related, psychological factors, derived from the interaction of valence (Positive vs. Negative) and target (Self vs. Other). The overall construct is the assessment of one’s dispositional state related to the Brahma-viharas over a specified period (typically the past week).

• Positive Self: Reflects self-acceptance, joy, and friendliness directed inward.
• Negative Self: Reflects self-criticism, anger, and hateful feelings directed inward.
• Positive Other: Reflects compassion, friendliness, and joy experienced for others.
• Negative Other: Reflects cruelty, anger, and mean-spiritedness directed toward others.

The items are designed to capture the extent to which an individual has thought, felt, or acted in ways consistent with these positive and negative states toward both internal and external targets.

Validity

The initial validation work conducted by Kraus and Sears (2009) established the construct validity of the SOFI scale. The scale was developed based on a thorough conceptual analysis of the Buddhist teachings on the four immeasurables. The derived factors (Positive Self, Negative Self, Positive Other, Negative Other) demonstrated clear theoretical alignment with established psychological concepts, such as self-compassion and empathy. Further research has shown that the SOFI subscales correlate logically with existing measures of well-being, interpersonal functioning, and personality traits, supporting its utility in assessing dispositional affect and behavior.

Reliability

The SOFI scale exhibits strong internal consistency across its four derived subscales, indicating high reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients reported in the initial validation study were all well within acceptable limits for psychological research:

• Positive Self: 0.86
• Negative Self: 0.85
• Positive Other: 0.80
• Negative Other: 0.82

These robust figures suggest that the items within each factor consistently measure the same underlying construct, ensuring that the scale provides dependable measurement of these affective dispositions.

Factor Analysis

The scale structure, as confirmed by factor analysis (implied by the four derived reliability statistics), is best described by a four-factor model. This model successfully separates the affective states based on both valence (positive vs. negative) and target (self vs. other). This four-factor solution supports the theoretical premise that the capacity for positive regard (like compassion or joy) toward the self is psychometrically distinct from the capacity for positive regard toward others, and similarly for negative states.

The clear distinction between self- and other-focused items is crucial for research exploring the psychological benefits of practices aimed at overcoming self-criticism (Negative Self) while simultaneously cultivating interpersonal warmth (Positive Other).

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychological inventory

Format: 16 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: General adult population

Age Group: Adults (Typically 18+)

Population Details: The scale is designed for use with diverse populations interested in measuring affective states, particularly those related to contemplative practices and positive psychology.

Test Methodology: Respondents are asked to indicate to what extent they have thought, felt, or acted in the specified ways toward themselves and others during the past week. The scoring key is:

1. Very Slightly or Not At All
2. A Little
3. Moderately
4. Quite a Bit
5. Extremely

Keywords

Self-regulation, emotional assessment, Brahma-viharas, affect, self-criticism, interpersonal relations, equanimity, dispositional states, psychological health.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected] (S. Kraus)

Correspondence Address: Not specified in source material.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The SOFI scale was initially published and validated in 2009. For specific permissions regarding use in clinical or commercial settings, researchers should contact the primary author, S. Kraus, via the provided email address. The full instrument and details of its development are available in the initial publication. The original PDF of the scale and its validation can be downloaded here: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.362.7145&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Reference’s

• Kraus, S., & Sears, S. (2009). Measuring the immeasurables: Development and initial validation of the Self–Other Four Immeasurables (SOFI) Scale based on Buddhist teachings on loving kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity. Social Indicators Research, 92, 169–181.
• Kraus, S., & Sears, S. (2009). Self–Other Four Immeasurables. In: Simmons C. A., Lehmann P. (eds). Tools for strengths-based assessment and evaluation. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 179-181. (2013).

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Items of the Self–Other Four Immeasurable Scale (SOFI)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

• Friendly—toward myself
• Friendly—toward others
• Hateful—toward myself
• Hateful—toward others
• Angry—with myself
• Angry—with others
• Joyful—for myself
• Joyful—for others
• Accepting—toward myself
• Accepting—toward others
• Cruel—toward myself
• Cruel—toward others
• Compassionate—toward myself
• Compassionate—toward others
• Mean—toward myself
• Mean—toward others