Sexual Beliefs Scale

Abstract

The Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS) is a psychological scale designed to assess five distinct beliefs related to sexual aggression and Rape Myth Acceptance. Unlike earlier instruments that yielded only a single global score, the SBS provides separate scores for each belief construct, allowing for nuanced analysis of specific attitudes that support sexual violence or dominance.

The scale exists in two formats: a short form consisting of 20 items (five 4-item subscales) and a long form consisting of 40 items (five 8-item subscales). Items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (Disagree Strongly) to 3 (Agree Strongly). Due to high correlations between the two forms (ranging from .96 to .98) and respondent feedback regarding the repetitiveness of the long form, the short 20-item version is generally recommended for most research and clinical applications.

Keywords

Sexual Beliefs Scale, SBS, Rape myths, Sexual aggression, Token Refusal, Leading On Justifies Force, Sexual dominance, Rape prevention, Psychological assessment.

Authors

Charlene L. Muehlenhard, Albert S. Felts.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS) is to measure specific, multifaceted beliefs that are theoretically linked to the perpetration or justification of sexual assault. The scale was developed specifically to overcome the limitations of single-score measures by isolating five key dimensions of rape-supportive attitudes. By providing separate scores for each subscale, researchers and clinicians can identify which particular belief system is most strongly endorsed by an individual or group.

This differential scoring is essential for tailoring effective sexual assault prevention programs, as demonstrated by studies where educational interventions specifically targeted and reduced scores on subscales related to justification of force and Token Refusal.

Construct

The SBS measures five distinct beliefs related to rape and sexual aggression. These constructs capture attitudes concerning refusal, justification of force, gender roles in sexual encounters, and the perceived enjoyment of force by women. The five subscales are:

• Token Refusal (TR): Measures the belief that women frequently indicate unwillingness to engage in sex (saying “no”) when they are, in fact, willing (meaning “yes”).
• Leading On Justifies Force (LOJF): Measures the belief that if a woman behaves seductively or “leads a man on” but then refuses sex, the man is justified in using force to obtain intercourse.
• Women Like Force (WLF): Measures the belief that women inherently enjoy or are sexually aroused by force or rough handling in sexual situations.
• Men Should Dominate (MSD): Measures the belief that men should hold power and dominate women within sexual contexts.
• No Means Stop (NMS): Measures the belief that women have the right to refuse sex at any point, and men should cease sexual advances immediately upon refusal. (Note: This subscale is theoretically protective but has shown mixed results in correlation with other rape-supportive beliefs.)

Validity

Numerous studies support the validity of the SBS, demonstrating its ability to correlate with relevant behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes, thus confirming that the subscales measure their intended constructs. The scale offers strong evidence of differential validity across its subscales.

For example, research by Muehlenhard and Hollabaugh (1988) established concurrent validity for the TR subscale, finding that women who reported engaging in Token Refusal (saying no but meaning yes) scored significantly higher on the TR subscale than other women. Furthermore, studies focusing on the LOJF subscale (Muehlenhard & MacNaughton, 1988) showed that women who scored high on LOJF were more likely to rate a hypothetical rape victim as more responsible and the assault as more justified compared to low-LOJF scorers. High-LOJF women were also more likely to report engaging in unwanted intercourse, potentially due to a belief that they were obligated to satisfy an aroused man whom they had “led on.”

The distinct predictive value of the subscales was highlighted in a study comparing men with high LOJF scores, high TR scores, and low scores on both (Muehlenhard, Andrews, & Beal, 1996). LOJF men consistently scored highest on the self-rated likelihood of attempting intercourse after a woman explicitly said no, even when assuming she genuinely meant no. This research underscores the importance of measuring these beliefs separately, as the TR belief (misinterpreting refusal) and the LOJF belief (justifying force) represent different pathways toward sexual aggression. Additionally, SBS composite scores correlate significantly with exposure to violent media, such as first-person shooter games, providing external criterion validity (Dill et al., 2008). Overall, men tend to endorse rape-supportive beliefs more strongly than women across all subscales, except for the NMS subscale.

Reliability

The SBS demonstrates high internal consistency across both its short and long forms, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha. For an initial sample of 337 male and female undergraduates, the coefficients for the short form were generally robust, and those for the long form were exceptionally high:

• Token Refusal (TR): Short Form = .71; Long Form = .84.
• Leading On Justifies Force (LOJF): Short Form = .90; Long Form = .92.
• Women Like Force (WLF): Short Form = .92; Long Form = .95.
• Men Should Dominate (MSD): Short Form = .85; Long Form = .93.
• No Means Stop (NMS): Short Form = .94; Long Form = .96.

These reliability estimates have been replicated in subsequent studies. Milhausen, McBride, and Jun (2006) found alphas ranging from .62 to .86 (median .80, N = 261). Dill, Brown, and Collins (2008) reported alphas ranging from .71 (TR) to .94 (NMS), with the alpha for the 20-item composite being .83 (N = 180).

Factor Analysis

While the initial publications introducing the SBS do not detail a specific exploratory or confirmatory factor analysis study, the scale is explicitly structured around five distinct, theoretically derived subscales, which implies an underlying multi-factor structure. The high internal consistency within each subscale and the demonstrated differential validity of the five subscale scores (TR, LOJF, WLF, MSD, NMS) strongly support the scale’s multidimensional factor structure. The authors developed the instrument specifically because existing measures provided only a single global score, validating the need for separate scores for different beliefs.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report inventory/Psychometric scale.

Format: Available in a 20-item short form and a 40-item long form. Responses are captured using a 4-point Likert scale (0 to 3).

Language Available: English (Original development language).

Population Group: General population, primarily validated on college students (undergraduates).

Age Group: Young adults and adults.

Population Details: Initial validation included male and female undergraduates (N=337).

Test Methodology: Items on each subscale are summed to yield five independent subscale scores. Short form scores range from 0 to 12 per subscale; long form scores range from 0 to 24 per subscale. Higher scores indicate greater endorsement of the specific rape-supportive belief measured by that subscale.

Keywords

Sexual harassment, Victim blaming, Likert scale, Psychometrics, Sexual assault prevention, Gender roles, Rape Myth Acceptance, Token Refusal, Cronbach’s alpha.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected] (Charlene Muehlenhard).

Correspondence Address: Charlene Muehlenhard, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, 426 Fraser Hall, 1415 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, KS 66045-7556.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was developed and introduced through academic publications in the late 1980s (e.g., Muehlenhard & Hollabaugh, 1988). Specific information regarding commercial licensing fees is not provided in the source content, but usage is generally governed by standard academic research permission protocols. Readers should contact the corresponding author, Charlene Muehlenhard, for current permissions and usage guidelines.

Reference’s

Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230.

Dill, K. E., Brown, B. P., & Collins, M. A. (2008). Effects of exposure to sex-stereotyped video game characters on tolerance of sexual harassment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1402–1408.

Goodchilds, J. D., & Zellman, G. L. (1984). Sexual signaling and sexual aggression in adolescent relationships. In N. M. Malamuth & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Pornography and sexual aggression (pp. 234– 243). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Jones, J. M., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1990, November). Using education to prevent rape on college campuses. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sex, Minneapolis, MN.

Milhausen, R. R., McBride, K. R., & Jun, M. K. (2006). Evaluating a peer- led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316–328.

Muehlenhard, C. L., Andrews, S. L., & Beal, G. K. (1996). Beyond “just saying no”: Dealing with men’s unwanted sexual advances in heterosexual dating contexts. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 8, 141–168.

Muehlenhard, C. L., & Hollabaugh, L. C. (1988). Do women sometimes say no when they mean yes? The prevalence and correlates of women’s token resistance to sex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 872–879.

Muehlenhard, C. L., & MacNaughton, J. S. (1988). Women’s attitudes toward women who “lead men on.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 65–79.

Items of the Sexual Beliefs Scale

Below is a list of statements regarding sexual attitudes. Using the scale below, indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement. There are no right or wrong answers, only opinions.

*M 1. Guys should dominate girls in bed.

N 2. Even if a man really wants sex, he shouldn’t do it if the girl doesn’t want to. L 3. Girls who are teases deserve what they get.

*W 4. By being dominated, girls get sexually aroused. W 5. A little force really turns a girl on.

N 6. It’s a girl’s right to refuse sex at any time.

T 7. Girls usually say No even when they mean Yes.

8. When a girl gets a guy obviously aroused and then says No, he has the right to force sex on her. W 9. Girls really want to be manhandled.

*M 10. Men should decide what should happen during sex.

*L 11. A man is justified in forcing a woman to have sex if she leads him on. M 12. A man’s masculinity should be proven in sexual situations.

*T 13. Girls generally want to be talked into having sex.

*W 14. Girls think it is exciting when guys use a little force on them.

*N 15. A guy should respect a girl’s wishes if she says No.

16. The man should be the one who dictates what happens during sex. T 17. Girls say No so that guys don’t lose respect for them.

W 18. Feeling dominated gets girls excited.

L 19. A girl who leads a guy to believe she wants sex when she really doesn’t deserves whatever happens.

*T 20. Women often say No because they don’t want men to think they’re easy.

*N 21. When girls say No, guys should stop. M 22. During sex, guys should be in control.

*L 23. When a girl toys with a guy, she deserves whatever happens to her. T 24. Girls just say No so as not to look promiscuous.

*N 25. At any point, a woman always has the right to say No.

*M 26. Guys should have the power in sexual situations.

*W 27. Women really get turned on by men who let them know who’s boss.

*T 28. Girls just say No to make it seem like they’re nice girls.

*L 29. Girls who tease guys should be taught a lesson.

*M 30. The man should be in control of the sexual situation.

L 31. Girls who act like they want sex deserve it when the guy follows through.

*N 32. Even if a man is aroused, he doesn’t have the right to force himself on a woman.

*L 33. Girls who lead guys on deserve what they get.

N 34. If a woman says No, a man has no right to continue.

M 35. Men should exercise their authority over women in sexual situations.

*T 36. When girls say No, they often mean Yes.

W 37. It really arouses girls when guys dominate them in bed. N 38. If a girl doesn’t want sex, the guy has no right to do it.

T 39. Girls who act seductively really want sex, even if they don’t admit it.

*W 40. Girls like it when guys are a little rough with them.

Note.

• T = Token Refusal subscale;
• L = Leading On Justifies Force subscale;
• W = Women Like Force subscale;
• M = Men Should Dominate subscale;
• N = No Means Stop subscale.

*These items are on the short form.