Attitudes Toward Masturbation Scale

Abstract

The Attitudes Toward Masturbation Scale (ATMS) is a complex, multi-dimensional psychological scale developed by Young and Muehlenhard (2009) to measure individuals’ nuanced thoughts, feelings, and behavioral motivations regarding masturbation. Unlike previous instruments which yielded only a single global score, the ATMS provides 28 specific subscale scores across three major domains: reasons for wanting (or being tempted) to masturbate, reasons for avoiding (or trying to avoid) masturbating, and feelings related to masturbating. The scale consists of 179 items, developed through a rigorous multi-step process including a pilot study using open-ended responses from undergraduate students, followed by item reduction based on principal components analysis and psychometric criteria such as Cronbach’s alphas. The ATMS is suitable for use with both individuals who masturbate and those who do not, offering a comprehensive assessment of internal attitudes toward this behavior.

Keywords

Attitudes Toward Masturbation Scale (ATMS), Sexual Attitudes, Masturbation, Sexual Behavior, Psychological Measurement, Sexual Health, Gender Differences, Scale Development, Sexual Guilt

Authors

Chantal D. Young, Charlene L. Muehlenhard

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Attitudes Toward Masturbation Scale (ATMS) is to provide a detailed, multi-faceted measurement of an individual’s attitudes and motivations concerning masturbation. The developers sought to move beyond older instruments, such as the Negative Attitudes Toward Masturbation Inventory (Abramson & Mosher, 1975) and the Masturbation Attitude Scale (Miller & Lief, 1976), which were outdated, yielded only a single score, and focused on general attitudes rather than the respondent’s personal experience or motivation.

Specifically, the ATMS aims to quantify three distinct, yet related, dimensions of personal experience: 1) the specific reasons why an individual might want or feel tempted to masturbate; 2) the specific reasons why an individual avoids or attempts to avoid masturbating; and 3) the range and intensity of positive and negative feelings experienced in relation to masturbating.

Construct

The ATMS measures the psychological construct of Attitudes Toward Masturbation, conceptualizing it not as a monolithic construct, but as a complex interplay of cognitive, behavioral, and affective components. This construct is broken down into 28 discrete subscales organized under three main categories:

• Reasons for Wanting to Masturbate (13 Subscales): These assess motivational themes such as pleasure, stress relief, mood improvement, self-exploration, and compulsion.
• Reasons for Avoiding Masturbation (10 Subscales): These assess inhibitory themes such as immorality, lack of interest, preference for partner sex, and fear of negative social evaluation.
• Feelings Related to Masturbation (5 Subscales): These assess affective outcomes, including satisfaction, guilt, anger, anxiety, and indifference.

Validity

Evidence for the validity of the ATMS was derived from a sample of 518 undergraduate men and women, demonstrating strong criterion and construct validity. Significant differences were observed between participants who masturbated and those who did not, even when controlling for gender.

Specifically, masturbators reported significantly higher scores on 9 of the 13 reasons-for-wanting subscales and the Satisfaction subscale, while scoring significantly lower on 5 of the 10 reasons-for-avoiding subscales, as well as the Guilt, Anger, Anxiety, and Indifference subscales. Furthermore, gender differences were noted on 18 of the 28 subscales, consistent with existing literature (Oliver & Hyde, 1993; Petersen & Hyde, 2007), showing men generally reported stronger positive attitudes and weaker avoidance reasons. A separate study involving 210 undergraduate women (Stroupe, 2008) further confirmed that masturbators scored higher on the Wanting and Positive-Feelings Composites and lower on the Avoiding and Negative-Feelings Composites.

Reliability

The internal consistency of the Attitudes Toward Masturbation Scale subscales was evaluated using Cronbach’s alphas based on the development sample of 518 undergraduate participants (Young & Muehlenhard, 2009). The Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from .71 to .97 across the 28 subscales, providing robust evidence that the subscales possess good to excellent internal consistency and reliability for research purposes.

Factor Analysis

The development of the ATMS relied on a structured, empirical methodology. After compiling 223 preliminary items derived from open-ended participant responses and existing literature, the items were subjected to principal components analysis (PCA) using data from 518 undergraduates. This statistical technique, combined with conceptual considerations and psychometric criteria (including Cronbach’s alphas and factor loadings), led to the final structure of 179 items divided into 28 conceptually distinct subscales across three primary categories.

Additionally, Young and Muehlenhard (2009) performed a cluster analysis on participants’ subscale scores, identifying four distinct attitudinal profiles toward masturbation: 1) the enthusiastic cluster (high Wanting, low Avoiding); 2) the lukewarm cluster (low Wanting, even lower Avoiding); 3) the high-guilt cluster (low Wanting, high Avoiding); and 4) the ambivalent cluster (highest Wanting, highest Avoiding). These clusters demonstrated significant differences in reported masturbation frequency and demographic composition, providing further validation of the scale’s ability to differentiate complex attitudes.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report Psychological Questionnaire / Multi-dimensional Attitudes Scale

Format: Paper-and-pencil questionnaire

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: Clinical and Non-clinical populations

Age Group: Typically college students (developed on undergraduates), but applicable to other adult populations.

Population Details: Developed and tested primarily on undergraduate men and women (N=518) at the University of Kansas.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate items on a 7-point Likert scale (0 to 6). Scoring involves calculating 28 individual subscale means, which are then averaged to form four composite scores: the Wanting Composite, the Avoiding Composite, the Negative-Feelings Composite, and the Positive-Feelings Composite.

Keywords

Psychometrics, Factor Analysis, Sexual Satisfaction, Self-Exploration, Sexual Anxiety, Guilt, Cluster Analysis

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected] (for Charlene L. Muehlenhard)

Correspondence Address: Charlene Muehlenhard, Department of Psychology, 426 Fraser Hall, University of Kansas, 1415 Jayhawk Blvd, Lawrence, KS 66045–7556

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions: The ATMS may be copied and used for educational, research, and clinical purposes without formal permission, provided appropriate citation is given. The authors request a summary of any resulting research.

Fee: No fee specified for use in educational, research, or clinical settings.

Test Year: 2009 (Based on the manuscript date for the scale’s full development and testing).

Reference’s

• Abramson, P., & Mosher, D. (1975). Development of a measure of negative attitudes toward masturbation. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 43, 485–490.

• Clifford, R. (1978). Development of masturbation in college women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 7, 559–573.

• Elliott, L., & Brantley, C. (1997). Sex on campus: The naked truth about the real sex lives of college students. New York: Random House.

• Miller, W. R., & Lief, H. I. (1976). Masturbatory attitudes, knowledge, and experience: Data from the sex knowledge and attitude test (SKAT). Archives of Sexual Behavior, 5, 447–467.

• Oliver, M. B., & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29–51.

• Petersen, J., & Hyde, J. S. (2007, November). A meta-analytic review of gender differences in sexuality: 1990–2007. Paper presented at the 50th Anniversary Meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, Indianapolis, IN.

• Stroupe, N. (2008). How difficult is too difficult? The relationships among women’s sexual experience and attitudes, difficulty with orgasm, and perception of themselves as orgasmic or anorgasmic. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence.

• Young, C. D., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (2009). The meanings of masturbation. Manuscript in preparation.

Items of the Attitudes Toward Masturbation Scale

Reasons for Wanting to Masturbate

Whether they masturbate or not, people may want to masturbate (or be tempted to masturbate) for many different reasons. Below is a list of possible reasons. Please rate how strong each of the reasons is for your wanting to masturbate or being tempted to masturbate, regardless of whether or not you actually masturbate.

For you, how strong are the following reasons for wanting to (or being tempted to) masturbate?

1. If I’m feeling horny

2. I find it pleasurable

3. If there is nothing else to do

4. If I’m not getting as much sex as I want

5. If I’m bored

6. To relieve stress

7. If I’m anxious

8. Because—even though I try—I just can’t stop myself

9. Because it’s a substitute for sex with a partner

10. Out of sexual frustration

11. I hope that masturbating will help me reach orgasm with a partner

12. Someone else thinks I should (e.g., a friend or a dating partner)

13. To explore my own sexuality

14. So I could say that I’ve done it (it’s something to talk about)

15. My partner wants to watch me do it

16. It’s a good way to take a break (e.g., a break from studying, etc.)

17. I’m curious about it

18. If I want to avoid unwanted arousal later

19. My friends have masturbated, and I want to be able to talk with them about it

20. “Everyone” does it, and I want to feel “sexually normal”

21. If I’m so sexually aroused that it’s interfering with other things I want or need to do

22. If I don’t have a partner to have sex with

23. To make myself a better sexual partner (e.g., to figure out how to achieve orgasm or to become more comfortable having orgasms with my partner)

24. Masturbating helps me keep my mind off sex with a partner

25. It’s a compulsive sexual behavior

26. Masturbating helps me remain a virgin

27. I just do it without really thinking about it

28. Masturbating makes it easier to avoid sex with a partner, and I don’t want to have sex with a partner for moral reasons (e.g., I don’t want to have sex before marriage)

29. Masturbating makes it easier to avoid sex with a partner, and I don’t want to have sex with a partner for health reasons (e.g., I don’t want to risk sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy)

30. Masturbating makes it easier to avoid sex with a partner, and I don’t want to have sex with a partner for self-esteem reasons (e.g., I don’t feel comfortable being sexual with someone else)

31. If I have a partner, but my partner refuses to have sex

32. I feel an uncontrollable urge to do it

33. If I want to decrease my sexual arousal so I can focus on something else

34. It’s more moral to masturbate than to have sex with a partner

35. If I want to have an orgasm

36. I get aroused by sexual activities that are not socially acceptable, so I fantasize about them during masturbation

37. I get aroused by sexual activities that are not possible in real life, so I fantasize about them during masturbation (e.g., sex with a movie star, sex on a beach, etc.)

38. Because I hear about it from TV, movies, magazines, etc.

39. Masturbating improves my sexual health

40. To help me fall asleep

41. Because it’s fun

42. Because I know exactly how to stimulate myself and maximize my pleasure

43. It’s a habit

44. If I am already sexually aroused (e.g., from watching a movie, reading a magazine)

45. Because I feel like no one is attracted to me

46. If I want to relax

47. If I’m angry

48. If I want to exercise my imagination

49. So that I can focus my concentration on a task after masturbating

50. Because I deserve to experience pleasure

51. If I see someone or something that is arousing

52. If I have an urge to do something sexual

53. Because I’m not comfortable enough with my body to be sexual with someone else

54. To learn how to give myself pleasure

55. To gain more sexual confidence

56. Because it’s good exercise

57. Because my friends masturbate

58. To calm myself down

59. So that I can stop thinking about masturbating

60. If I feel frustrated about something else

61. It makes me feel peaceful

62. It distracts me when I’m feeling down

63. To try a new method (e.g., sex toys, pornography)

64. It’s an escape

65. To avoid using another person for sex

66. Because it arouses my partner when he/she knows that I masturbated

67. If I’m in a bad mood

68. To learn how to have better orgasms

69. If I’m already sexually aroused, and I want to decrease my level of sexual arousal

70. Because it arouses my partner when I masturbate in front of him/her

71. If I’m feeling unattractive

72. I enjoy my fantasies during masturbation

Reasons for Avoiding (or for Trying to Avoid) Masturbating

Whether they masturbate or not, people might avoid (or try to avoid) masturbating for many different reasons. Below is a list of possible reasons. Please rate how strong each of the reasons is for you avoiding (or trying to avoid) masturbating, regardless of whether or not you actually masturbate.

For you, how strong are the following reasons for avoiding (or trying to avoid) masturbating?

73. It’s against my religion

74. It’s against my morals or values

75. It’s against my parents’ morals or values

76. I’m just not interested

77. It just doesn’t appeal to me

78. I am uncomfortable with any sexual behavior

79. It would make me feel cheap

80. If I am committed to someone

81. I would feel guilty about it

82. I am anxious about sexual behavior

83. I know I’d regret it

84. I fear it will damage my reputation

85. I feel uncomfortable or embarrassed about my body

86. I think it would be physically uncomfortable

87. It seems weird to me

88. I feel strange doing it

89. I think I should have more self-control

90. If I’m currently sexually satisfied

91. Society says it’s wrong

92. If I’m stressed

93. I’m afraid of someone knowing I masturbate

94. It makes me feel lonely

95. If I’m afraid of being caught

96. It makes me feel sexually inadequate

97. It’s bad for my health

98. If I’m in a committed relationship

99. I like to feel in control of my urges

100. I’m not sure how to masturbate

101. I don’t like how it feels

102. It’s embarrassing to me

103. Because I like intercourse better

104. Because I like any sexual contact with a partner better

105. I feel bad about myself afterwards

106. If I’m depressed

107. Orgasms are better with a partner

108. My partner doesn’t want me to do it

109. If I’m worried about something else

110. If I’ve recently had sex

111. It makes me less able to orgasm during sex

112. It makes me less horny during sex

113. I want to improve my self-discipline

114. It’s boring

115. I feel like I’m cheating on my partner

116. My fantasies during masturbation bother me

117. If I’ve had a bad day

118. It’s a waste of time

119. It seems pointless

120. I don’t find it sexually arousing

121. Other people might find me gross

122. My family is against it

123. My friends are against it

124. It makes me feel empty inside

125. I was raised to believe it’s wrong

126. It makes me feel ashamed

127. It’s disrespectful to myself

128. If I’m satisfied with the quantity of the sex I’m having

129. If I’m satisfied with the quality of the sex I’m having

130. My sexual thoughts during masturbation bother me

131. Masturbation in an adult is immature

132. It makes me feel like I’m sinning against myself

133. It’s not as good as sex

134. It does not fit with my religious views

Feelings About Masturbation

Check which set of directions applies to you:

If you masturbate: People feel many different things when they masturbate. Below is a list of possible feelings. How strongly, if at all, do you usually experience these feelings when you masturbate?

If you don’t masturbate: People feel many different things when they masturbate. Below is a list of possible feelings. How strongly, if at all, do you think you would usually experience these feelings if you did masturbate?

How strongly do you experience this feeling when you masturbate?

OR

How strongly would you experience this feeling if you did masturbate?