Work Discrimination

Abstract

The Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment Scale is a psychological scale developed to measure the frequency and intensity of perceived unfair treatment and hostile behavior experienced by individuals in the workplace. The instrument exists in two primary formats: a longer 12-item version developed for the YES Study, and a shorter, psychometrically validated 6-item version used in studies like the CCAHS (Community Child Health Assessment Study). These scales are designed specifically to quantify exposure to chronic stressors, including subtle acts of work discrimination (such as being ignored or denied promotion) and overt acts of harassment (such as exposure to racial or ethnic slurs). The measurement focuses on experiences occurring within the past 12 months, utilizing a five-point frequency rating system.

Keywords

Workplace discrimination, Chronic stress, Perceived racism, Employment bias, Job dissatisfaction, Harassment, Racial disparities, Psychometric assessment.

Authors

The abbreviated version was formally cited by Sternthal, Slopen, and Williams (2011), building upon foundational work in measuring perceived racism and discrimination by researchers such as McNeilly et al. (1996) and Bobo & Suh (2000). The specific development for the YES Study is not attributed to a single author in the source material.

[quads id=5]

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment Scale is to provide researchers with a quantitative measure of exposure to workplace-based psychosocial stressors rooted in perceived bias and unfair treatment. This scale serves as a critical tool in studies investigating the detrimental effects of chronic stress, particularly race-based stress, on mental and physical health outcomes among diverse populations.

By differentiating between acts of systemic discrimination (e.g., unfair job assignments, lack of promotion) and direct or indirect harassment (e.g., racial slurs or jokes), the instrument allows for a nuanced analysis of the specific types of adverse workplace experiences that contribute to stress and poor health.

Construct

The scale measures the psychological construct of Perceived Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment. This construct encompasses the subjective experience of being targeted or witnessing unfair or hostile actions based on one’s identity (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation) within a professional setting. The items assess frequency over the past year, capturing the chronic nature of these exposures rather than isolated incidents.

In the abbreviated version, the construct is explicitly separated into two factors: a Discrimination Factor focusing on institutional or evaluative unfairness (e.g., needing to work twice as hard, being closely watched) and a Harassment Factor focusing on hostile social interactions involving slurs or jokes related to protected characteristics (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation).

Validity

While the source content does not provide detailed reports on convergent or discriminant validity, the scale items demonstrate strong face validity, directly addressing common manifestations of bias and hostility in employment settings. The items align with established literature on perceived racism and workplace stress, suggesting construct validity. Furthermore, the abbreviated version’s clear factor structure (Discrimination and Harassment) supports its internal structural validity, indicating that it measures distinct, yet related, dimensions of workplace adversity.

Reliability

Reliability data is explicitly provided for the Abbreviated Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment scale, developed for the CCAHS Study (Sternthal et al., 2011). Internal consistency, measured using Cronbach’s Alpha, indicates good reliability for both subscales:

• The 3-item Discrimination subscale demonstrated an internal consistency of alpha = .73.
• The 3-item Harassment subscale demonstrated a higher internal consistency of alpha = .84.

These values suggest that the items within each factor consistently measure their respective underlying constructs, making the abbreviated version a reliable tool for chronic stress research.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis of the Abbreviated Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment scale reveals a two-factor structure, which aligns conceptually with different types of workplace adversity:

1. Discrimination Factor: This factor includes items related to systemic unfairness, unequal effort requirements, and heightened scrutiny.
2. Harassment Factor: This factor clusters items related to overt hostility, specifically the use of slurs or jokes targeting protected groups (e.g., racial, ethnic, gender, or sexual orientation groups).

This clear distinction between systemic bias and overt hostility enhances the scale’s utility for researchers studying the differential impact of various forms of racial disparities and bias on employee well-being.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Psychosocial stressor inventory

Format: Likert-type frequency scale

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: Working adults, particularly those belonging to racial, ethnic, or other minority groups who may experience high rates of perceived bias.

Age Group: Adults (Working Age)

Population Details: Used primarily in large cohort studies such as the YES Study and the CCAHS Study, often focusing on minority populations to assess the impact of chronic institutional and interpersonal stress.

Test Methodology: Participants are asked to rate how often they experienced specific situations during the LAST 12 MONTHS. The response categories are: 1=Once a week or more, 2= A few times a month, 3= A few times a year, 4= Less than once a year, 5= Never. Scoring typically involves reverse coding and summing or averaging item responses to create composite scores for Discrimination and Harassment.

Keywords

Workplace environment, Organizational climate, Employment inequality, Health disparities, Psychosocial factors, Perceived discrimination, Institutional racism, Alpha coefficient.

[quads id=5]

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in the source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not specified in the source material.

Correspondence Address: Not specified in the source material, but related research is heavily associated with Dr. David R. Williams (Harvard University).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The full instrument is often used in large public health studies. The instrument is generally available for academic use, often through resources provided by key researchers in the field of discrimination and health, such as Dr. David R. Williams. The Abbreviated Scale was formally presented in 2011 (Sternthal et al.). A comprehensive resource detailing the measurement of discrimination, which includes this instrument, is available online. The original PDF can be downloaded here: http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/davidrwilliams/files/measuring_discrimination_resource_feb_2012_0_0.pdf.

Reference’s

• Bobo‚ L‚ Suh SA. (2000). Surveying Racial Discrimination: Analyses From a Multiethnic Labor Market. Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles. (L. D. Bobo‚ M. L. Oliver‚ J. H. Johnson‚ A. Valenzuela‚ Eds.); 527-564.‚ New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
• McNeilly‚ M.D.‚ Anderson‚ N.B.‚ Armstead‚ C.A.‚ Clark‚ R.‚ Corbett‚ M.‚ Robinson‚ E.L.‚ Pieper‚ C.F. & Lepisto‚ E.M. (1996). “The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans.” Ethnicity and Disease.; 6 (1‚2)‚ 154-166.
• Sternthal‚ M.‚ Slopen‚ N.‚ Williams‚ D.R. “Racial Disparities in Health: How Much Does Stress Really Matter? Du Bois Review‚ 2011; 8(1): 95-113.

[quads id=5]

Items of the Work Discrimination

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment (YES Study)

1. How often are you UNFAIRLY given the jobs that no one else wants to do?
2. At work‚ when different opinions would be helpful‚ how often is your opinion not asked for?
3. How often are you watched more closely than others?
4. How often does your supervisor or boss use racial or ethnic slurs or jokes?
5. How often does your supervisor or boss direct racial or ethnic slurs or jokes at you?
6. How often do your coworkers use racial or ethnic slurs or jokes?
7. How often do your coworkers direct racial or ethnic slurs or jokes at you?
8. How often do you feel that you have to work twice as hard as others work?
9. How often do you feel that you are ignored or not taken seriously by your boss?
10. How often do others assume that you work in a lower status job than you do and treat you as such?
11. How often has a coworker with less experience and fewer qualifications gotten promoted before you?
12. How often have you been unfairly humiliated in front of others at work?

Response categories: 1=Once a week or more‚ 2= A few times a month‚ 3= A few times a year‚ 4= Less than once a year‚ 5= Never

Chronic Work Discrimination and Harassment (Abbreviated)

Discrimination (3 items)

1. How often do you feel that you have to work twice as hard as others to get the same treatment or evaluation?
2. How often are you watched more closely than other workers?
3. How often are you unfairly humiliated in front of others at work?

Harassment (3 items)

1. How often do your supervisor or coworkers make slurs or jokes about racial or ethnic groups?
2. How often do your supervisor or coworkers make slurs or jokes about women?
3. How often do your supervisor or co-workers make slurs or jokes about gays or lesbians?

Response categories: 1=Once a week or more‚ 2= A few times a month‚ 3= A few times a year‚ 4= Less than once a year‚ 5= Never