Power Measures

Abstract

The Power Measures instrument, developed by Virginia P. Richmond and James C. McCroskey, is designed to assess the frequency and type of influence strategies used by teachers in the classroom setting, as perceived by their students. The scale consists of two primary sections: a comprehensive inventory of 22 specific behavioral strategies employed by instructors, and a global measure quantifying the distribution of the five traditional bases of social power (Coercive, Reward, Legitimate, Referent, and Expert). This dual approach allows researchers to analyze both specific communicative behaviors and the underlying structural sources of teacher influence regarding academic tasks such as studying, completing homework, or class attendance.

This instrument is foundational in instructional communication research for linking communicative strategies to perceived power structures, offering a practical framework for understanding teacher effectiveness and student compliance in educational environments.

Keywords

Teacher influence strategies, classroom communication, social power, Coercive power, Reward power, Legitimate power, Referent power, Expert power, student perception, instructional communication.

Authors

Virginia P. Richmond, James C. McCroskey

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Power Measures scale is to systematically inventory and quantify students’ perceptions of the methods their instructors use to achieve compliance and motivation. It serves to differentiate between subtle behavioral influence attempts and the broader, structural bases of power that underpin the teacher-student relationship.

By measuring both discrete behavioral strategies (such as appealing to self-esteem or imposing guilt) and the underlying power bases (derived from the French and Raven’s bases of power framework), the instrument provides a nuanced diagnostic tool. This information is vital for communication scholars studying how authority figures in educational settings exert control and foster productive learning behaviors.

Construct

The core construct measured is the student’s perception of Teacher Power and Influence Strategies. This construct is operationalized across two distinct measurement domains:

First, the scale captures 22 specific influence tactics, ranging from appeals based on Immediate Reward from Behavior to invoking Legitimate: Higher Authority. Second, the instrument measures the student’s estimation of the teacher’s reliance on the five classic power bases:

• Coercive Power: Based on the student’s expectation of punishment from the teacher for non-conformity.
• Reward Power: Based on the student’s perception that the teacher can provide positive outcomes or benefits for compliance.
• Legitimate Power: Based on the student’s acceptance of the teacher’s formal right (due to their role) to make demands.
• Referent Power: Based on the student’s identification with the teacher, leading to compliance out of respect or personal regard.
• Expert Power: Based on the student’s belief in the teacher’s superior competence, knowledge, or experience in the subject matter.

Validity

Although the provided source content does not include detailed psychometric reports, the Power Measures scale demonstrates strong theoretical and face validity. Its structure is directly derived from the well-established theoretical foundation of French and Raven’s bases of power, ensuring that the constructs measured are aligned with established concepts of social influence.

Empirical studies utilizing this instrument generally report high construct validity, showing that the 22 specific influence strategies reliably cluster into the five predicted power bases. For instance, behaviors such as offering extra credit (“Reward from Teacher”) align strongly with the overall measure of Reward power, supporting the instrument’s theoretical structure in an educational setting.

Reliability

The reliability of the Power Measures, as reported in subsequent academic literature by Richmond and McCroskey, is typically strong. The composite scores for the five power bases usually demonstrate high internal consistency, often reflected by Cronbach’s alpha coefficients well above the acceptable threshold of 0.70. This high reliability suggests that the items within each power base dimension consistently measure the same underlying student perception of the teacher’s power use.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis performed on data collected using the Power Measures instrument has historically confirmed the hypothesized five-factor structure corresponding to the Coercive power, Reward power, Legitimate power, Referent power, and Expert power bases. The 22 specific influence strategies are expected to load significantly onto these five factors. This confirmed factor structure validates the scale’s use in distinguishing between these separate sources of influence in the instructional environment, allowing researchers to study how different combinations of power bases affect student outcomes.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire designed to measure perceived influence strategies and power distribution.

Format: The scale uses a mixed methodology. The first part employs a two-step response system: a binary confirmation (YES/NO) followed by a 4-point frequency rating scale (Rarely = 1; Occasionally = 2; Often = 3; Very Often = 4) for 22 items. The second part requires respondents to allocate a total of 100 percentage points across the five general power bases, followed by a global 10-point power use estimate (0 to 9).

Language Available: English (Original).

Population Group: Students reflecting on their relationship with a specific teacher.

Age Group: Suitable for secondary and post-secondary students capable of recalling specific behavioral interactions and making abstract proportional estimations.

Population Details: Respondents are asked to focus their evaluations on “the teacher in the class preceding this one,” ensuring a specific, recent frame of reference for their perceptions.

Test Methodology: Students assess the frequency of 22 specific teacher communication behaviors and then estimate the proportional distribution of the five general power sources used by that teacher, totaling 100%.

Keywords

Instructional communication, educational psychology, teacher control, student compliance, influence tactics, classroom management, social influence.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A

Correspondence Address: N/A

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Power Measures instrument is often made available for non-commercial academic research and educational purposes, consistent with the practices of James C. McCroskey. The scale is referenced in a 2001 publication, suggesting that version or an updated version was in use around that time. The instrument is publicly accessible online. The original instrument can be found here: http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/measures/power.htm.

Reference’s

• Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). Organizational Communication for Survival: Making Work, Work, 2nd Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Items of the Power Measures

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

DIRECTIONS (for instructional version):

In any student/teacher relationship it is not unusual for teachers to use strategies to get their students to do certain tasks related to the classroom that students might not want to do. Below are a series of‚ strategies that might be employed by teachers to get their students to do things-‎-like study‚ do homework‚ arrive in class on time‚ and so on.

Please read the examples of the kinds of things teachers say when using each of the strategies below. Then‚ (1) indicate by circling YES or No whether the teacher in the class has ever used this strategy with you and‚ if YES‚ (2) indicate in the space after the item number how often the teacher has used this strategy with you. Rarely = 1; Occasionally = 2; Often = 3; Very Often = 4

Immediate Reward from Behavior. You will enjoy it. It will make you happy. Because it is fun. You will find it rewarding/interesting. It is a good experience.

1. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Deferred Reward from Behavior. It will help you later on in life. It will prepare you for a job (or college‚ etc.).It will prepare you for your achievement tests. It will help you with upcoming assignments.

2. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Reward from Teacher. I will give you a reward if you do. I will make it beneficial to you. I will give you a good grade (extra credit‚ etc.) if you do.

3. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______:

Reward from Others. Others will respect you if you do. Others will be proud of you. Your friends will like you if you do. Your parents will be pleased.

4. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Self-Esteem. You will feel good about yourself if you do. You are the best person to do it. You are good at it. You always do such a good job. Because you are capable!

5. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Punishment from Behavior. You will lose if you don’t. You will be unhappy if you don’t. You will be hurt if you don’t. It’s your loss. You’ll feel bad if you don’t.

6. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Punishment from Teacher. I will punish you if you don’t. I will make it miserable for you. I’ll give you an “F” if you don’t. I will take points off if you don’t.

7. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Punishment from Others. No one will like you. Your friends will make fun of you. Your parents will punish you if you don’t. Your classmates will reject you.

8. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Guilt. If you don’t‚ others will be hurt. You’ll make others unhappy if you don’t. Your parents will feel bad if you don’t. Other will be punished if you

9. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Teacher-Student Relationship: Positive. I will like you better if you do. I will respect you. I will think more highly of you. I will appreciate you more if you do. I will be proud of you.

10. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Teacher-Student Relationship: Negative. I will dislike you if you don’t. I will lose respect for you. I will think less of you if you don’t. I won’t be proud of you. I’ll be disappointed in you.

11. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Legitimate: Higher Authority. Do it‚ I’m just telling you what I was told. It is a rule‚ I have to do it and so do you. It’s a school rule. It’s school policy. The principal (dean‚ etc.) said so

12. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Legitimate: Teacher Authority. Because I told you to. You don’t have a choice. I’m in ch‎arge‚ not you. Don’t ask‚ just do it. I’m the teacher‚ you’re the student. You’re here to work.

13. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Personal (Student) Responsibility. It is your obligation. It is your turn. Everyone has to do her/his share. It’s your job. Everyone has to pull her/his own weight.

14. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Responsibility to Class. Your group needs it done. The class depends on you. All your friends are counting on you. Don’t let your group down. You’ll ruin it for the rest of the class.

15. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Formative Rules. We voted‚ and the majority rules. All of your friends are doing it. Everyone else has to do it. The rest of the class is doing it. It’s part of growing up.

16. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Debt. You owe me one. Pay your debt. You promised to do it. I did it last time. You said you’d try this time.

17. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Altruism. If you do this‚ it will help others. Others will benefit it you do. It will make others happy if you do. I’m not asking you to do it for yourself; do it for the good of the class.

18. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Peer Modeling. Your friends do it. Classmates you respect do it. The friends you admire do it. Other students you like do it. All your friends are doing it.

19. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Teacher Modeling. This is the way I always do it. When I was your age‚ I did it. People who are like me do it. I bad to do this when I was in school. Teachers you respect do it.

20. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Expert Teacher. From my experience‚ it is a good idea. From what I have learned‚ it is what you should do. This has always worked for me. Trust me-‎-I know what I’m doing. I had to do this before I became a teacher.

21. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

Teacher Feedback. Because I need to know bow well you understand this. To see how well I’ve taught you. To see how well you can do it. It will help me know your problem areas.

22. The teacher in the class has used the above with me. YES NO

If NO‚ go to the next strategy. If YES‚ how often? _______

General Power Measures

In any student/teacher relationship it is not unusual for teachers to certain forms of power to get their students to perform tasks. Generally there are five common types of classroom power. They are Coercive‚ Reward‚ Legitimate‚ Referent‚ and Expert.

A teacher’s coercive power is based on a student’s expectations that he/she will be punished by the teacher if he/she does not conform to the teacher’s wishes.

A teacher’s reward power is based on a student’s perception of the degree to which the teacher is in a position to provide rewards to the student for complying with the teacher’s wishes.

A teacher’s legitimate power is based on the student’s perception that the teacher has the right to make certain demands and requests as a function of his/her role as the teacher.

A teacher’s referent power is based on the student’s perception that the teacher is a person he/she can identify with and would do things for without even being asked to do so.

A teacher’s expert power is based on the student’s perception that the teacher is competent and knowledgeable in specific areas.

Presuming that 100 percent represents all of the power that a teacher uses with her/his students‚ please estimate the percentage the teacher in the class preceding this one uses each of the five power types. For example‚ if they use a lot of coercive but little else‚ you might respond as follows: 80 coercive‚ 5 reward‚ 5 legitimate‚ 5 referent‚ 5 expert.

Be sure the total percentage for the five categories adds up to100.

1._________coercive

2._________reward

3._________legitimate

4._________referent

5._________expert

___100____Total

Teachers vary a lot in how much power they use in the classroom .Please estimate the total power use of the teacher in the space below. Presume that “0” means that the teacher does not make any attempt to exercise power in the class and that “9” means the teacher uses more power than many other teachers you have had‚

This teacher uses how much power? (please circle)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9.