Table of Contents
Abstract
The Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II) is a widely utilized, brief, 28-item self-report instrument designed to quantify the frequency and severity of dissociative experiences in daily life. This scale is founded on the concept that dissociation often functions as a psychological defense mechanism, particularly among individuals who have experienced trauma.
The DES-II is highly effective in clinical settings for assessing patients with conditions such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), various dissociative disorders, and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), as well as those with a documented history of abuse. Its application goes beyond diagnostics, serving as a valuable tool for tracking symptom progression and treatment efficacy over time. The scale is organized around three primary theoretical sub-factors: Amnesia, Depersonalization/Derealization, and Absorption.
Keywords
Dissociation, Dissociative Experiences Scale, DES-II, Trauma, PTSD, Borderline Personality Disorder, Depersonalization, Derealization, Amnesia, Psychological Assessment.
Authors
Elizabeth B. Carlson, Frank W. Putnam
Purpose
The primary purpose of the DES-II is to provide a reliable and quantifiable measure of the range and frequency of dissociative symptoms experienced by an individual. It aims to distinguish between non-clinical levels of dissociation, which may involve common phenomena like absorption in media, and clinically significant levels associated with severe psychopathology.
The scale is particularly important for screening potential cases of dissociative disorders and trauma-related conditions where dissociation is a central feature. By quantifying these experiences (using a percentage rating from 0% to 100%), the DES-II aids clinicians in identifying the severity of symptoms and guiding subsequent diagnostic interviews or therapeutic interventions.
Construct
The DES-II measures the psychological construct of dissociation, which involves a disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, and motor control. The scale operationalizes this broad construct into three distinct, though often interrelated, sub-factors:
- Amnesia Factor: This subscale assesses memory disturbance, including gaps in memory for daily events, finding oneself in places without recollection of the journey, or discovering items/notes one does not remember creating or purchasing.
- Depersonalization/Derealization Factor: This subscale captures experiences of detachment. Depersonalization refers to feeling detached from one’s own body or mental processes (e.g., watching oneself from outside). Derealization refers to the feeling that the external world (objects, people) is unreal, foggy, or strange.
- Absorption Factor: This factor measures a capacity for deep focus or immersion, often related to traumatic processing or high imaginative involvement, such as becoming utterly absorbed in a daydream, movie, or memory to the exclusion of surrounding reality.
Validity
Multiple meta-analyses affirm the strong validity of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). A seminal meta-analysis by Van IJzendoorn and Schuengel (1996) demonstrated good convergent validity, showing that the DES correlated highly with other established measures of dissociative experiences, including various questionnaires and structured interview schedules.
Furthermore, the scale exhibits impressive predictive validity, particularly concerning severe clinical populations. The DES-II is highly effective in predicting the presence of dissociative disorders, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and a history of abuse. Lyssenko et al. (2018) reinforced this finding, concluding in their meta-analysis that the DES remains a highly useful and robust screening tool across a wide spectrum of psychiatric diagnoses.
Reliability
While the internal consistency (as measured by Cronbach’s alpha) of the overall DES-II score is generally high, the reliability is best understood in the context of its normative data across diverse populations. The reported means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for the total score highlight reliable distinctions between non-clinical and clinical groups (IJzendoorn & Schuengel, 1996):
- Non-clinical adult: M = 11.6 (SD = 10.6)
- Student/Adolescent: M = 14.3 (SD = 14.3)
- General psychiatric patient: M = 16.7 (SD = 16.4)
- Personality Disorders: M = 19.6 (SD = 16.2)
- History of abuse: M = 29.2 (SD = 21)
- PTSD: M = 32.0 (SD = 19.2)
- Dissociative disorders: M = 41.2 (SD = 22)
Factor Analysis
Although the DES-II is theoretically segmented into three subscales—Amnesia, Depersonalization/Derealization, and Absorption—research, including the meta-analysis by IJzendoorn & Schuengel (1996), often indicates that these subscales do not consistently form three distinct, separable factors when subjected to factor analysis. Instead, most factor analyses suggest the scale is best represented by a single, overarching factor encompassing general dissociative severity.
Consequently, while the subscale scores (Amnesia, Depersonalization/Derealization, Absorption) can provide descriptive information about the type of dissociation experienced, the overall total score remains the most robust and reliable measure for clinical screening and quantifying the presence of pathological dissociation.
Interpretation
The total score on the DES-II ranges from 0 to 100. Scores are calculated by averaging the percentage ratings across the 28 items. A score of 30 or greater is widely considered to indicate clinically significant, high levels of dissociation, suggesting the need for further diagnostic evaluation for dissociative disorders or severe trauma-related pathology.
Interpretation involves comparing the individual’s score to the published normative data, yielding percentile ranks relative to non-clinical and various clinical populations. This comparison helps contextualize the severity of the measured dissociative experiences. Raw scores (sum of items) and average scores (sum items / number of items) for the three subscales are also reported to identify specific symptom profiles:
- Amnesia Factor (Items 3, 4, 5, 8, 25, 26): This factor measures memory loss related to daily activities and important life events.
- Depersonalization/Derealization Factor (Items 7, 11, 12, 13, 27, 28): This factor assesses the recurrent experience of feeling detached from oneself (depersonalization) or from the surrounding environment (derealization).
- Absorption Factor (Items 2, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20): This factor measures the capacity to become deeply preoccupied or absorbed in internal experiences (fantasies, daydreams, or traumatic memories), leading to a lack of awareness of external events.
Instrument
Test Type: Self-report questionnaire, Screening tool
Format: 28 items, rated on an 11-point scale from 0% (Never) to 100% (Always), indicating the percentage of time the experience occurs.
Language Available: English (numerous translations are available in academic use).
Population Group: Clinical and Non-clinical populations.
Age Group: Adults and adolescents.
Population Details: Used extensively in populations with trauma history, PTSD, dissociative disorders, and Borderline Personality Disorder. Normative data exists for non-clinical adults, students, and various patient groups.
Test Methodology: Respondents are asked to indicate how often specific dissociative phenomena occur in their daily lives, emphasizing that responses should reflect experiences when they are not under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
Keywords
Psychological assessment, Dissociative disorders, Trauma assessment, Dissociative Experiences Scale, DES-II, Clinical psychology, Psychometrics, Screening instrument.
Authors
Author ORCID Identifier: N/A
Affiliation Email addresses: N/A
Correspondence Address: N/A
Permissions & Fee and Test Year
The Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II) was formally updated and published in 1993 by Carlson and Putnam. The scale is widely used in both clinical and research settings. Researchers and clinicians seeking to use the DES-II should consult the original publication or contact the authors/publishers for the most current information regarding licensing, permissions, and associated fees.
Reference’s
Carlson, E.B. & Putnam, F.W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experience Scale. Dissociation 6(1), p. 16-27.
Lyssenko, L., Schmahl, C., Bockhacker, L., Vonderlin, R., Bohus, M., & Kleindienst, N. (2018). Dissociation in psychiatric disorders: a meta-analysis of studies using the dissociative experiences scale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(1), 37-46.
Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Schuengel, C. (1996). The measurement of dissociation in normal and clinical populations: Meta-analytic validation of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 365-382.
Items of the Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II)
IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.
Instructions:
This questionnaire consists of questions about experiences that you may have in your daily life. We are interested in how often you have these experiences. It is important, however, that your answers show how often these experiences happen to you when you are not under the influence of alcohol or drugs. To answer the questions, please determine to what degree the experience described in the question applies to you, and show what percentage of the time you have the experience.
| 0% | 10% | 20% | 30% | 40% | 50% | 60% | 70% | 80% | 90% | 100% | ||
| Some people have the experience of driving or riding in a car or bus or subway and suddenly realizing that they don’t remember what has happened during all or part of the trip. Select the number to show what percentage of the time this happens to you. (0% Never, 100% Always) | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that sometimes they are listening to someone talk and they suddenly realize that they did not hear part or all of what was said. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of finding themselves in a place and have no idea how they got there. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of finding themselves dressed in clothes that they don’t remember putting on. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of finding new things among their belongings that they do not remember buying. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes find that they are approached by people that they do not know, who call them by another name or insist that they have met them before. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes have the experience of feeling as though they are standing next to themselves or watching themselves do something and they actually see themselves as if they were looking at another person. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people are told that they sometimes do not recognize friends or family members. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that they have no memory for some important events in their lives (for example, a wedding or graduation). | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of being accused of lying when they do not think that they have lied. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of looking in a mirror and not recognizing themselves. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of feeling that other people, objects, and the world around them are not real. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of feeling that their body does not seem to belong to them. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of sometimes remembering a past event so vividly that they feel as if they were reliving that event. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| 0% | 10% | 20% | 30% | 40% | 50% | 60% | 70% | 80% | 90% | 100% | ||
| Some people have the experience of not being sure whether things that they remember happening really did happen or whether they just dreamed them. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people have the experience of being in a familiar place but finding it strange and unfamiliar. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that when they are watching television or a movie they become so absorbed in the story that they are unaware of other events happening around them. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that they become so involved in a fantasy or daydream that it feels as though it were really happening to them. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that they sometimes are able to ignore pain. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that they sometimes sit staring off into space, thinking of nothing, and are not aware of the passage of time. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes find that when they are alone they talk out loud to themselves. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find that in one situation they may act so differently compared with another situation that they feel almost as if they were two different people. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes find that in certain situations they are able to do things with amazing ease and spontaneity that would usually be difficult for them (for example, sports, work, social situations, etc.). | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes find that they cannot remember whether they have done something or have just thought about doing that thing (for example, not knowing whether they have just mailed a letter or have just thought about mailing it). | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people find evidence that they have done things that they do not remember doing. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes find writings, drawings, or notes among their belongings that they must have done but cannot remember doing. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes find that they hear voices inside their head that tell them to do things or comment on things that they are doing. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
| Some people sometimes feel as if they are looking at the world through a fog, so that people and objects appear far away or unclear. | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | |
Cite this article
Mohammed looti (2025). Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II). Psychological Scales & Instruments Database. Retrieved from https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/dissociative-experiences-scale-ii-des-ii/
Mohammed looti. "Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II)." Psychological Scales & Instruments Database, 27 Oct. 2025, https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/dissociative-experiences-scale-ii-des-ii/.
Mohammed looti. "Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II)." Psychological Scales & Instruments Database, 2025. https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/dissociative-experiences-scale-ii-des-ii/.
Mohammed looti (2025) 'Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II)', Psychological Scales & Instruments Database. Available at: https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/dissociative-experiences-scale-ii-des-ii/.
[1] Mohammed looti, "Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II)," Psychological Scales & Instruments Database, vol. X, no. Y, ص Z-Z, October, 2025.
Mohammed looti. Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II). Psychological Scales & Instruments Database. 2025;vol(issue):pages.