Irrational Belief

Abstract

The measurement of irrational beliefs is a foundational element in cognitive-behavioral assessment, stemming primarily from two major schools of thought: Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), pioneered by Albert Ellis, and Cognitive Therapy (CT), developed by Aaron Beck. This academic entry summarizes various scales designed to quantify these maladaptive cognitions, which are hypothesized to underlie emotional disturbances such as anxiety and depression. Scales based on the Ellis model typically target four core irrational categories (e.g., demandingness, awfulizing), while Beck-based instruments focus on measuring specific automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes related to the cognitive triad.

Keywords

Irrational Beliefs, Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Cognitive Model, Depression, Anxiety, Psychological Assessment, Dysfunctional Attitudes, Automatic Thoughts

Authors

K. Robert Bridges, Richard J. Harnish (Authors of the comprehensive review)

Purpose

The primary purpose of the collection of scales measuring irrational beliefs is multifaceted. They serve as essential tools in psychological research to investigate the link between rigid, illogical thinking patterns and various forms of psychopathology, including depression, neuroticism, anger disorders, and alcohol use problems. Clinically, these instruments, such as the Rational Behavior Inventory (RBI) and the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT), are used for assessment, treatment planning, and evaluating therapeutic efficacy, particularly within the framework of REBT and CT, by identifying specific maladaptive schemas or automatic thoughts requiring intervention.

Scales such as the Child and Adolescent Scale of Irrationality (CASI) are specifically designed to address emotional problems, anxiety, and depression in younger populations. Other instruments, like the Evaluative Beliefs Scale (EBS), target highly specific clinical presentations, such as the nature of evaluative beliefs in individuals with anger disorders.

Construct

The construct of Irrational Belief is operationalized differently depending on the underlying theoretical model:

• Ellis Model (REBT): This model posits that emotional distress arises not from activating events, but from rigid, demanding beliefs about those events. Key constructs measured include demandingness, awfulizing (catastrophizing), low frustration tolerance, and global evaluation of human worth (self-downing/other-downing). Instruments like the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) attempt to measure these core factors.

• Beck Model (CT): Scales based on the Beck model, such as the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS) and the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ-30), measure the content and frequency of negative cognitions. The focus is often on the cognitive triad (negative views of the self, the world, and the future) and underlying dysfunctional schemas that predispose an individual to disorders like depression and anxiety.

• Other Models: Some scales measure specific cognitive constructs highly correlated with irrationality, such as the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE), which assesses apprehension regarding negative social judgment, or the Penn State Worry Scale, which targets generalized worry linked to anxiety disorders.

Validity

Validity evidence across the various irrational belief measures is typically established through correlations with clinical symptomology, such as high correlations with measures of depression, neuroticism, and various forms of anxiety. For instance, instruments like the General Attitude and Belief Scale (GABS) were developed explicitly for research purposes to unravel the dynamics of behavior disorders linked to these beliefs.

The validity of many scales is tied to their ability to demonstrate content specificity (e.g., the Cognition Checklist measures automatic thoughts relevant to both anxiety and depression, supporting the cognitive model’s content-specificity hypothesis). Instruments like the Irrational Beliefs Survey (IBS) were specifically designed to operationalize Ellisonian beliefs, providing construct validity for the REBT model.

Reliability

While specific reliability coefficients (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha) are not uniformly reported in the summary tables, the scales reviewed are published in established academic journals (e.g., Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Cognitive Therapy and Research), suggesting standard psychometric rigor. Reliability is typically measured through internal consistency and test-retest methods, ensuring that the instrument consistently measures the underlying construct of irrational belief.

Factor Analysis

Factor structures vary significantly among the scales, reflecting the authors’ attempts to capture either the broad Ellisian categories or the specific content domains of Beck’s model. Examples of observed factor structures include:

• Single Factor Scales: The Belief Scale (BS) by Malouff & Schutte (1986) uses 20 items to measure a single, generalized factor of irrationality.

• Multi-Factor Scales (Ellis Model): Instruments like the Child and Adolescent Scale of Irrationality (CASI) employ 44 items across 6 sub-scales, while the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) is highly comprehensive, utilizing 100 items across 8 factors. The Rational Behavior Inventory (RBI) identifies 11 distinct factors.

• Multi-Factor Scales (Beck Model): The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS) has 100 items distributed across 9 factors, measuring various schemas related to vulnerability to depression. The Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-30 (ATQ-30) measures 4 factors of automatic thoughts associated with depression.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Inventory (Psychological Assessment)

Format: Primarily fixed-response items, typically using a Likert scale format, ranging from 3-point (Idea Inventory) to 7-point scales (Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale, Cognitive Triad Inventory). One notable exception is the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale, which uses a True/False format.

Language Available: Not explicitly stated for all scales, but developed initially in English for use in psychology research and clinical settings.

Population Group: Clinical and Non-Clinical Populations (e.g., university students, individuals with depression, anger disorders, personality disorders, and alcohol use problems).

Age Group: Varies from Child and Adolescent (CASI) to Adult populations.

Population Details: Scales are often used to distinguish clinical clients from non-clients (Common Beliefs Survey-III) and to examine the role of beliefs in specific diagnoses such as depression, anxiety, OCD, and personality disorders (Personality Belief Questionnaire).

Test Methodology: Respondents indicate their level of agreement with statements reflecting rigid or negative cognitions. Many scales are unpublished and require direct contact with the authors for access (e.g., Common Beliefs Survey-III, General Attitude and Belief Scale, Irrational Beliefs Test, Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale, Personality Belief Questionnaire).

Keywords

Maladaptive Cognitions, REBT, CT, Personality Disorders, Neuroticism, Awfulizing, Low Frustration Tolerance, Cognitive Triad, Likert Scale, Psychological Measurement

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Not provided in source)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Not provided in source)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Not provided in source)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions and fees vary widely. Many instruments were published in academic journals, while others remain unpublished and require direct contact with the scale authors for copies and usage rights. Key development years range from 1968 (Irrational Beliefs Test) to 2002 (Smith Irrational Beliefs Inventory).

The underlying review article, “Role of irrational beliefs in depression and anxiety: a review” by K. R. Bridges et al. (2010), is openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/HEALTH.

Reference’s

• Beck, A. T., Brown, G., Steer, R. A., Eidelson, J. I., & Riskind, J. H. (1987). Cognition Checklist (CCL). Journal of Abnormal Psychology.

• Beckham, E. E., Leber, W. R., Watkins, J. T., Boyer, J. L., & Cook, J. B. (1986). Cognitive Triad Inventory (CTI). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

• Bernard, M. E., & Laws, W. (1987). Child and Adolescent Scale of Irrationality (CASI). Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly.

• Bessai, J. (1977). Common Beliefs Survey-III (CBS-III). Unpublished.

• Camatta, R. P., & Nagoshi, C. T. (1995). Camatta & Nagoshi Scale. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.

• Chadwick, P., Trower, P., & Dagnan, D. (1999). Evaluative Beliefs Scale (EBS). Cognitive Therapy and Research.

• Crandell, C. J., & Chambless, D. L. (1986). Crandell Cognitions Inventory (CCI). Behaviour Research and Therapy.

• Demaria, R., Kassinove, H., & Dill, C. A. (1989). Survey of Personal Beliefs (SPB). Journal of Personality Assessment.

• DiGiuseppe, R. A., Leaf, R. C., Exner, T., & Robin, M. W. (1988). General Attitude and Belief Scale (GABS). Unpublished.

• Ellis, A. (1992). Ellis Emotional Efficiency Inventory (EEEI). Questionnaire: The elegant solution to emotional and behavioral problems.

• Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Gray, L. (1998). Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

• Harrell, T. H., Chambless, D. L., & Calhoun, J. F. (1981). Situational Self-Statement and Affective State Inventory (SSSASI). Cognitive Therapy and Research.

• Hollon, S. D., & Kendall, P. C. (1980). Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-30 (ATQ-30). Cognitive Therapy and Research.

• Jones, R. G. (1968). Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT). Unpublished.

• Kassinove, H., Crisci, R., & Tiegerman, S. (1977). Idea Inventory. Journal of Community Psychology.

• Koopmans, H. J., Sanderman, R., Timmerman, I., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (1994). Irrational Beliefs Inventory (IBI). European Journal of Psychological Assessment.

• LeFebvre, M. F. (1981). General Cognitive Error Questionnaire (CEQ). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

• Malouff, J. M., & Schutte, N. S. (1986). Belief Scale (BS). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

• Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Penn State Worry Scale. Behavior Research and Therapy.

• Shorkey, C. T., & Whiteman, V. L. (1977). Rational Behavior Inventory (RBI). Educational and Psychological Measurement.

• Smith, A. (2002). Smith Irrational Beliefs Inventory (SIBI). Stress management: A comprehensive handbook of techniques and strategies.

• Watson, D., & Friend, R. (1969). Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

• Watson, J. C., Vassar, P. S., Plemel, D. M., Herder, M. J., Manifold, V., & Anderson, L. (1990). Irrational Beliefs Survey (IBS). Journal of Clinical Psychology.

• Weissman, A. N., & Beck, A. T. (1978). Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS). Unpublished.

Items of the Irrational Belief

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

• “It is terrible when things do not go the way I would like.” (Belief Scale)

• “Life should be easier than it is.” (Belief Scale)

• “To be happy‚ I must maintain the approval of all the persons I consider significant.” (Belief Scale)

• “It is awful and catastrophic when things are not the way I’d like them to be.” (Camatta & Nagoshi Scale)

• “I have little or no ability to control the sorrows and disturbances in my life.” (Camatta & Nagoshi Scale)

• “I can’t stand ha‎ving to behave well and follow rules.” (Child and Adolescent scale of Irrationality)

• “It’s really awful to have lots of homework to do.” (Child and Adolescent scale of Irrationality)

• “Teachers should really act fairly all the time.” (Child and Adolescent scale of Irrationality)

• “There is a right way to do every-thing.” (Common Beliefs Survey-III)

• “Being approved by others is very important.” (Common Beliefs Survey-III)

• “A person can’t help feeling guilty about wrongdoings.” (Common Beliefs Survey-III)

• “I often pity myself when people treat me unfairly.” (Ellis Emotional Efficiency Inventory)

• “I am quite pessimistic and often see things in a bad or hopeless light.” (Ellis Emotional Efficiency Inventory)

• “I often feel insulted and embarrassed.” (Ellis Emotional Efficiency Inventory)

• “I am a total failure.” (Evaluative Beliefs Scale)

• “People think I’m a bad person.” (Evaluative Beliefs Scale)

• “Other people are worthless.” (Evaluative Beliefs Scale)

• “I can’t stand hassles in my life.” (General Attitude and Belief Scale)

• “I cannot tolerate not doing well at important tasks and it is unbearable to fail.” (General Attitude and Belief Scale)

• “I must be liked by important people‚ and I will not accept not being liked by them.” (General Attitude and Belief Scale)

• “I feel like I’m a stupid person when I don’t do as well as my friends.” (Idea Inventory)

• “I constantly worry about dangerous accidents occurring.” (Idea Inventory)

• “I get upset and angry then my plans go wrong.” (Idea Inventory)

• “I hate to fail at anything.” (Irrational Beliefs Inventory)

• “I often get excited or upset when things go wrong.” (Irrational Beliefs Inventory)

• “I avoid facing my problems.” (Irrational Beliefs Inventory)

• “I am often upset over other people’s problems.” (Irrational Beliefs Survey)

• “It is easier to avoid some of life’s difficulties and responsibilities than it is to face them.” (Irrational Beliefs Survey)

• “I do not believe I am worthwhile unless I am thoroughly competent at everything I do.” (Irrational Beliefs Survey)

• “I dislike for others to make my decisions for me.” (Irrational Beliefs Test)

• “It is annoying but not upsetting to be criticized.” (Irrational Beliefs Test)

• “I find it hard to go against what others think.” (Irrational Beliefs Test)

• Why can’t I be perfect? (Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory)

• “Things are seldom ideal.” (Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory)

• “I am too much of a perfectionist.” (Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory)

• “I find that my occupation and social life tend to make me unhappy.” (Rational Behavior Inventory)

• “I usually try to avoid chores which I dislike doing.” (Rational Behavior Inventory)

• “I worry about little things.” (Rational Behavior Inventory)

• In response to situations; “I’ve really done a lousy job. I’ve let everybody down. My work just hasn’t been any good. I don’t think I can do any better.” (Situational Self-Statement and Affective State Inventory)

• In response to situations; “I wish I had done better. I still think my work is good and with a little more persistence‚ I will do better in the next contest.” (Situational Self-Statement and Affective State Inventory)

• In response to situations; “I guess it really is difficult for people to straighten things out some-times. I hope when we see each other again we’ll be able to talk without so much conflict.” (Situational Self-Statement and Affective State Inventory)

• “I always need help on important problems.” (Smith Irrational Beliefs Inventory)

• “Things didn’t turn out like I wanted; this is a disaster.” (Smith Irrational Beliefs Inventory)

• “I’m just a failure.” (Smith Irrational Beliefs Inventory)

• “There are some things in life that I just can’t stand.” (Survey of Personal Beliefs)

• “There are times when awful things happen.” (Survey of Personal Beliefs)

• “I clearly should not make some of the mistakes I make.” (Survey of Personal Beliefs)

• “I can’t finish anything.” (Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-30)

• “I’m a loser.” (Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-30)

• “My life is a mess.” (Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-30)

• “I will never overcome my problems.” (Cognition Checklist)

• “I’m a social failure.” (Cognition Checklist)

• “People will laugh at me.” (Cognition Checklist)

• “I can’t do anything right.” (Cognitive Triad Inventory)

• “There is no reason for me to be hopeful about my future.” (Cognitive Triad Inventory)

• “My family doesn’t care what hap-pens to me.” (Cognitive Triad Inventory)

• “Everything I do is a failure.” (Crandell Cognitions Inventory)

• “I’ll never do as well as others.” (Crandell Cognitions Inventory)

• “Nothing seems exciting anymore.” (Crandell Cognitions Inventory)

• “Being alone leads to unhappiness.” (Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale)

• “If I ask a question‚ it makes me look stupid.” (Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale)

• “I am nothing if a person I love doesn’t love me.” (Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale)

• Vignette: “Last time you went skiing‚ you took a hard fall and got shook up. You’re supposed to go skiing this weekend but think‚ ‘I’ll probably fall and break my leg and there will be no one to help me.’” (General Cognitive Error Questionnaire)

• Vignette: “You have been working for six months as a car salesperson. You had never been a salesperson before and were just fired because you were not meeting your quotas. You thought‚ ‘Why try to get another job‚ I’ll just get fired. ’” (General Cognitive Error Questionnaire)

• Vignette: “Last night your spouse said s/he thought you should have a serious discussion about sex. You think to yourself‚ ‘S/he hates the way we make love.’” (General Cognitive Error Questionnaire)

• “I am socially inept and socially undesirable in work or social situations.” (Personality Belief Questionnaire)

• “Unpleasant feelings will escalate and get out of control.” (Personality Belief Questionnaire)

• “I am helpless when I’m left on my own.” (Personality Belief Questionnaire)

• “I often worry that I will say or do wrong things.” (Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale)

• “I am frequently afraid of other people noticing my shortcomings.” (Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale)

• “I worry about what kind of impression I make on people.” (Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale)

• “I worry all the time.” (Penn State Worry Scale)

• “My worries overwhelm me.” (Penn State Worry Scale)

• “Once I start worrying‚ I can’t stop.” (Penn State Worry Scale)