Self-Efficacy for Learning Form

Abstract

The Self-Efficacy for Learning Form (SELF) is a psychometrically sound instrument designed to measure students’ perceived confidence in their ability to utilize specific self-regulated learning strategies across various academic domains. Rooted in Social Cognitive Theory, the scale assesses self-efficacy beliefs concerning five critical academic subprocesses: Reading, Note-Taking, Studying, Test Preparation, and Writing. Developed by Zimmerman, Kitsantis, and Campillo (2005), the original form contains 57 items, while an abridged 19-item version (SELF-A) is also widely used for research purposes. This instrument is crucial for identifying areas where students may lack confidence in their regulatory skills, which is a key predictor of academic attainment.

Keywords

Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulated Learning, Academic Motivation, Study Skills, Note-Taking, Test Preparation, Writing Efficacy, Reading Comprehension, Higher Education, Educational Psychology.

Authors

Barry J. Zimmerman, Anastasia Kitsantis, Miguel Campillo.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Self-Efficacy for Learning Form (SELF) is to quantify students’ domain-specific efficacy beliefs regarding their capability to execute the necessary self-regulatory strategies required for successful learning. Unlike general academic self-efficacy measures, the SELF provides a fine-grained assessment by targeting specific behavioral and cognitive skills, such as note revision, time management, and test strategy implementation. This detailed measurement allows educators and researchers to pinpoint specific skill deficits that may undermine a student’s confidence and performance.

The scale serves as a diagnostic tool within the framework of self-regulated learning (SRL), helping to understand how students plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning processes. High scores on the SELF indicate a strong sense of self-efficacy in managing academic tasks, suggesting that the student is likely to persist when faced with learning challenges and employ effective study techniques.

Construct

The core psychological construct measured by the SELF is Self-Efficacy for Learning, conceptualized as an individual’s belief in their ability to organize and execute courses of action required to produce specific educational attainments. This perspective aligns with Albert Bandura’s work on Social Cognitive Theory, emphasizing that efficacy beliefs are context-dependent and influence motivation and behavior.

The SELF operationalizes this construct by breaking down the complex process of self-regulation into five measurable subprocesses, ensuring that the efficacy assessment is task-specific rather than generalized. These subscales—Reading, Study, Test Preparation, Note-Taking, and Writing—represent the essential skills college students must master to become effective, self-regulated learners.

Validity

The validity of the SELF has been supported through numerous studies, particularly those conducted by the scale’s primary authors (Zimmerman & Kitsantis, 2007). Evidence for construct validity has been established through correlations with measures of academic performance and other indicators of Self-Regulated Learning. The scale demonstrates predictive validity, as students with higher SELF scores generally achieve higher grades and exhibit better persistence in challenging academic situations.

Furthermore, the factor structure (discussed below) provides empirical support for the theoretical differentiation of the five subscales, confirming that the items accurately group into the intended academic domains. This multidimensional approach reinforces the scale’s utility in capturing nuanced differences in students’ self-efficacy across distinct academic tasks.

Reliability

The SELF demonstrates strong internal consistency, confirming its reliability across different populations of college students. Studies, such as those published in the Journal of Psychology (Zimmerman & Kitsantis, 2007), report high coefficients for the overall scale and for the individual subscales. Typical Cronbach’s alpha values for the full SELF scale frequently exceed .90, indicating excellent reliability.

The abridged 19-item version (SELF-A) also retains robust psychometric properties, making it suitable for situations requiring a shorter administration time without significantly compromising the reliability of the total score. The high reliability coefficients confirm that the items within each subscale consistently measure the corresponding self-regulatory skill.

Factor Analysis

Factor analytical studies of the 57-item SELF confirm its multidimensional structure, generally supporting the five theoretical subscales corresponding to the self-regulatory subprocesses: Reading (R), Study (S), Test Preparation (T), Note-Taking (N), and Writing (W). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses typically reveal these distinct factors, suggesting that students differentiate their self-efficacy beliefs based on the specific academic task required.

This factor structure is consistent with the theoretical premise that self-efficacy is domain-specific. While the five factors are distinct, they are often moderately correlated, reflecting the underlying commonality of self-regulation as a general skill set. Researchers using the SELF often utilize both the total score (representing overall academic self-efficacy) and the scores from the five subscales for targeted intervention planning.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Questionnaire (Academic Self-Efficacy Scale)

Format: Likert-type percentage confidence scale, ranging from 0% (Definitely Cannot Do It) to 100% (Definitely Can Do It).

Language Available: English (and other languages as translated in international research, such as Spanish, as suggested by the 2005 reference).

Population Group: Students

Age Group: Typically utilized with adolescents and young adults (High School and College/University students).

Population Details: Primarily developed and validated on college students, suitable for assessing metacognitive and motivational skills essential for higher education success.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate their perceived certainty of success in performing specific self-regulatory behaviors under challenging academic conditions (e.g., “When a lecture is especially boring, can you motivate yourself to keep good notes?”). The scale includes the full 57-item version and the abridged 19-item version (SELF-A).

Keywords

Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation, Study Habits, Academic Performance, Educational Measurement, Confidence Rating, Zimmerman Scale, Learning Strategies, Metacognition.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source material.

Correspondence Address: Not provided in source material.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original conceptualization and development of the full scale occurred around 2005 (Zimmerman, Kitsantis, Campillo, 2005). The abridged version (SELF-A) was further validated around 2007 (Zimmerman & Kitsantis, 2007). Information regarding specific commercial permissions or fees is not detailed in the source content, but instruments by B. J. Zimmerman are often made available for academic research use.

This instrument can be found at the following links (PDF files):

• https://www.uky.edu/ch‎areushe2/Pajares/SelfEfficacyForLearningZimmerman.pdf
• http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED548582.pdf

Reference’s

• Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner: Which are the key subprocesses? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 307–313.
• Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy belifs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 663-676.
• Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-Efficacy: An Essential Motive to Learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82–91. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1016
• Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory into practice, 41(2), 64-70.
• Zimmerman, B & Campillo, M. (2003). “Motivating Self-Regulated Problem Solvers.” In J.E. Davidson and Robert Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology Problem Solving. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pp.233-262.
• Zimmerman, B., Kitsantis, A. Campillo, M. (2005). Evaluación de la autoeficacia regulatoria: Una perspectiva social cognitiva. Evaluar, 5, 1-21.
• Zimmerman, B & Kitsantis, A. (2007). Reliability and Validity of Self-Efficacy for Learning Form (SELF) Scores of College Students. Journal of Psychology, 215(3), 157-163. DOI: 10.1027/0044-3409.215.3.157.
• Conner, T.W., Skidmore, R. L., and Aagaard, Lola . (2012). College Student Disposition and Academic Self-Efficacy. Presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Lexington, Kentucky.
• Zimmerman & Kitsantis, (2007). The Self-Efficacy for Learning Form–Abridged . In: Simmons C. A., Lehmann P. (eds). Tools for strengths-based assessment and evaluation, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 320. (2013).

Items of the Self-Efficacy for Learning Form

Self-Efficacy for Learning Form–Abridged (SELF-A)

1. When you miss a class can you find another student who can explain the lecture notes as clearly as your teacher did?
2. When your teacher’s lecture is very complex, can you write an effective summary of your original notes before the next class?
3. When a lecture is especially boring, can you motivate yourself to keep good notes?
4. When you had trouble understanding your instructor’s lecture, can you clarify the confusion before the next class meeting by comparing notes with a classmate?
5. When you have trouble studying your class notes because they are incomplete or confusing, can you revise and rewrite them clearly after every lecture?
6. When you are taking a course covering a huge amount of material, can you condense your notes down to just the essential facts?
7. When you are trying to understand a new topic, can you associate new concepts with old ones sufficiently well to understand them?
8. When another student asks you to study together for a course in which you are experiencing difficulty, can you be an effective study partner?
9. When problems with friends and peers conflict with schoolwork, can you keep up with your assignments?
10. When you feel moody or restless during studying, can you focus your attention well enough to finish your assigned work?
11. When you find yourself getting increasingly behind in a new course, can you increase your study time sufficiently enough to catch up?
12. When you discover that your homework assignments for the semester are much longer than expected, can you change your other priorities to have enough time for studying?
13. When you have trouble recalling an abstract concept, can you think of a good example that will help you remember it on the test?
14. When you have to take a test in a school subject you dislike, can you motivate yourself to do well?
15. When you are feeling depressed about a forthcoming grade, can you find a way to motivate yourself to do well?
16. When your last test results were poor, can you figure out potential questions before the next test that will improve your score greatly?
17. When you are struggling to remember technical details of a concept for a test, can you find a way to associate them together that will ensure recall?
18. When you think you did poorly on a test you just finished, can you go back to your notes and locate all the information you had forgotten?
19. When you find that you had to cram at the last minute for a test, can you begin your test preparation much earlier so you won’t need to cram the next time?

Self-Efficacy for Learning Form (Full 57-Item Version)

R = reading item, S = study item, T = test preparation item, N = note-taking item, W = writing item

1. When you notice you are having trouble concentrating on a reading assignment, can you refocus your attention and learn the material? (R)
2. When you don’t understand a paragraph you have just read, can you clarify it by careful rereading? (R)
3. When you have trouble recalling key facts in a reading assignment, can you find a way to remember all of these two weeks later? (R)
4. When you have trouble remembering complex definitions from a textbook, can you redefine them so that you will recall them? (S)
5. When you feel very anxious before taking a test, can you remember all the material you studied? (T)
6. When you have tried unsuccessfully to study for an hour, can you set and attain an important study goal during your remaining time? (S)
7. When you are given an extensive reading assignment to cover before class the next day, can you set aside enough time in your schedule to finish it? (R)
8. When you don’t understand your teacher, can you ask the right question to clarify matters? (N)
9. When your teacher gives a rambling disorganized lecture, can you reorganize and rewrite your notes before the next class meeting? (N)
10. When you find your homework assignments vary greatly in length each day, can you adjust your time schedule to complete them? (S)
11. When you notice that your notes are much less complete than another student’s, can you write down all the teacher’s points during the next lecture? (N)
12. When you notice that you are getting behind in your homework during the week, can you catch up during the next weekend? (S)
13. When another student asks you to study together for a course in which you are experiencing difficulty, can you be an effective study partner? (S)
14. When you have missed several classes, can you make up the work within a week? (S)
15. When you find the assignment you are reading doesn’t make sense, can you interpret it by using text clues, such as headings or italics? (R)
16. When you miss a class, can you find another student who can explain the lecture notes as clearly as your teacher did? (N)
17. When problems with friends and peers conflict with school work, can you keep up with your assignments? (S)
18. When the assigned reading is boring, can you find a way to motivate yourself to learn it fully? (R)
19. When a homework assignment, such as learning vocabulary words, is repetitive and uninteresting, can you make it into an exciting challenge? (S)
20. When an assigned reading is poorly written, can you figure out its meaning so you can explain it well on an essay test? (R)
21. When a teacher’s lecture is over your head, can you find a way to get the information clarified before the next class meeting? (N)
22. When your teacher’s lecture is very complex, can you write an effective summary of your original notes before the next class? (N)
23. When you are having trouble understanding assigned reading material, can you find a classmate who can explain everything clearly to you? (R)
24. When you feel moody or restless during studying, can you focus your attention well enough to finish your assigned work? (S)
25. When you are trying to understand a new topic, can you associate new concepts with old ones sufficiently well to remember them? (S)
26. When a lecture is especially boring, can you motivate yourself to keep good notes? (N)
27. When you are having trouble comprehending a reading assignment, can you find key sentences that will help you understand each paragraph? (R)
28. When you have to take a test in a school subject you dislike, can you find a way to motivate yourself to earn a good grade? (T)
29. When you have time available between classes, can you motivate yourself to use it for studying? (S)
30. When you had trouble understanding your instructor’s lecture, can you clarify the confusion before the next class meeting by comparing notes with a classmate?(N)
31. When you feel anxious during an exam and have trouble controlling information, can you relax and concentrate well enough to remember it? (T)
32. When you are feeling depressed about a forthcoming test, can you find a way to motivate yourself to do well? (T)
33. When you are tired, but have not finished writing a paper, can you find a way to motivate yourself until it is completed? (W)
34. When you suddenly realize that you can’t remember any material you have read during the last half hour, can you create self-questions to help you review the material successfully? (R)
35. When you find yourself putting off writing of an assigned paper, can you motivate yourself to begin the task immediately? (W)
36. When you have trouble recalling an abstract concept, can you think of a good example that will help you remember it on a test? (T)
37. When your friends want to see a movie when you need to study for a test, can you find a way to decline without offending them? (T)
38. When your last test results were poor, can you figure out potential questions before the next test that will improve your score greatly? (T)
39. When you are taking a course covering a huge amount of material, can you condense your notes down to just the essential facts? (N)
40. When you find yourself getting increasingly behind in a new course, can you increase your study time sufficiently to catch up? (S)
41. When you are struggling to remember technical details of a concept for a test, can you find a way to associate them together that will ensure recall? (T)
42. When your teacher lectures so rapidly you can’t write everything down, can you record all the important points in your notes? (N)
43. When you are angry about a course because of a teacher’s demanding requirements, can you find a way to channel your anger to help you succeed? (S)
44. When your concentration wanders while writing an important paper, can you refocus it sufficiently to finish the paper on time? (W)
45. When describing a complex principle in a written paper, can you create an analogy that a reader will understand? (W)
46. When you find that your first draft of a paper is wordy, ungrammatical, or confusing, can you revise it so that it is completely clear and grammatical? (W)
47. When you are asked to write a concise, well-organized paper over night, can you find a way to do it? (W)
48. When you are dissatisfied with an important paper you are writing, can you find another person who will show you how to remove all the problems? (W)
49. When you are asked to write a paper on an unfamiliar topic, can you find good enough information to please your teacher? (W)
50. When you learn that a paper you just finished writing is confusing and needs to be completely rewritten, can you delay your other plans for a day to revise it?(W)
51. When you discover that your homework assignments for the semester are much longer than expected, can you change your other priorities to have enough time for studying? (S)
52. When you think you did poorly on a test you just finished, can you go back to your notes and locate all the information you had forgotten? (T)
53. When you are struggling to remember the details of a complex reading assignment, can you write summary notes that will greatly improve your recall? (R)
54. When you find that you had to “cram” at the last minute for a test, can you begin your test preparation much earlier so you won’t need to cram the next time? (T)
55. When other students from your class emphasize parts of the teacher’s lecture that you excluded from your notes, can you correct this omission before the next class meeting? (N)
56. When you are struggling to understand a body of information for a test, can you diagram it or chart it so you will remember it all two weeks later? (T)
57. When you have trouble studying your class notes because they are incomplete or confusing, can you revise and rewrite them clearly after every lecture? (N)