Self-Monitoring (SM) Scale

Abstract

The Self-Monitoring (SM) Scale is a widely utilized instrument in social psychology designed to measure individual differences in self-monitoring. Developed by Mark Snyder in 1974, the scale assesses the degree to which individuals observe and control their expressive behavior and self-presentation in social situations. High self-monitors are adept at modifying their behavior to match situational demands, while low self-monitors tend to act consistently based on their true inner states, attitudes, and beliefs. The original 25-item format, later revised, uses a dichotomous True/False response format to capture this fundamental dimension of personality.

Keywords

Self-monitoring, personality assessment, social behavior, expressive behavior, impression management, social adaptability, construct validity.

Authors

Mark Snyder, Steven Gangestad (for later revisions and theoretical work).

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Self-Monitoring Scale is to quantify the extent to which individuals regulate their behavior based on external social cues versus internal personal dispositions. This distinction is crucial for understanding how individuals navigate complex social environments and manage their public image, a process often referred to as impression management.

The scale helps researchers classify individuals into two broad categories: high self-monitors, who are highly sensitive to the expectations of others and skilled at behavioral adaptation, and low self-monitors, who value consistency between their inner feelings and outer actions, often ignoring social appropriateness in favor of authenticity. This measurement allows for the prediction of differential behavioral consistency across situations.

Construct

The underlying psychological construct is Self-Monitoring, defined as a stable personality trait reflecting an individual’s concern with the situational appropriateness of their behavior. It encompasses three core components: attention to social comparison information (monitoring the behavior of others for cues), ability to modify self-presentation (adjusting one’s behavior), and the use of this ability in specific social settings.

While the original 25-item scale aimed to capture a unitary dimension of this trait, subsequent research, particularly the work leading to the shorter 18-item and 13-item versions, debated whether self-monitoring is truly a unidimensional construct or if it comprises sub-factors such as Acting Ability, Other-Directedness, and Extroversion. Nonetheless, the scale remains the standard measure for assessing the motivational and behavioral regulatory processes associated with adapting to social contexts.

Validity

Extensive research supports the construct validity of the Self-Monitoring Scale. High self-monitors have consistently been shown to differ significantly from low self-monitors in behavioral outcomes, relationship formation, and professional success.

For instance, high self-monitors demonstrate high criterion validity by being more successful in occupations requiring significant social adaptability, such as sales, marketing, and management (Day et al., 2002). Validity studies have also demonstrated that low self-monitors exhibit higher cross-situational consistency between attitudes and behavior compared to high self-monitors. The revised versions of the scale (Snyder & Gangestad, 1986) were developed specifically to enhance the scale’s internal structure and validity by isolating the core dimension of expressive control from related but distinct constructs like sociability.

Reliability

The reliability of the Self-Monitoring Scale has been examined across various formats and populations. The original 25-item version generally demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha typically ranging between .70 and .83. The revised and shorter 18-item version often exhibits slightly higher internal consistency, making it a more psychometrically sound measure.

Anderson (1991) specifically investigated the test-retest reliability of the revised scale over a two-year period, confirming its temporal stability. This high degree of stability over extended periods supports its interpretation as a fundamental, enduring personality trait rather than a fleeting state, reinforcing its utility in longitudinal research within social psychology.

Factor Analysis

The factor structure of the Self-Monitoring Scale has been a central point of academic debate. Snyder (1974) originally proposed a single, unitary factor reflecting the overall ability and motivation for self-monitoring. However, subsequent factor analytic studies suggested that the original 25-item pool might be tapping into multiple dimensions.

Gangestad and Snyder (1985, 2000) acknowledged that the original scale contained items related to sociability or acting ability that were peripheral to the core trait of expressive control. They argued that the core self-monitoring construct, as measured by their revised scales, remained essentially unidimensional, representing a fundamental individual difference in adaptive social responsiveness. The revised scales (such as the 18-item version) are designed to load strongly onto this single primary factor.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Personality Inventory

Format: Dichotomous (True/False). Items marked (F) are reverse scored (i.e., changed to T) before counting the number of (T) responses. The total score is the sum of ‘True’ responses, indicating the level of self-monitoring.

Language Available: English (Original); translated versions exist, including those used in cross-cultural research (e.g., Iranian translation).

Population Group: General Adult Population

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults

Population Details: Widely used in academic research, organizational behavior studies, and social psychology experiments focusing on interpersonal relations and leadership.

Test Methodology: Typically administered as a standardized questionnaire. Scoring is objective and straightforward, based on the number of responses corresponding to high self-monitoring behavior.

Keywords

Snyder Scale, impression management, behavioral flexibility, social skills, personality trait, situational adjustment.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A

Correspondence Address: N/A

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original 25-item scale was published in 1974 by Mark Snyder. The scale is generally considered to be in the public domain for non-commercial academic research use, though researchers should verify current policies. The revised 18-item version (Snyder & Gangestad, 1986) is often preferred for its improved psychometric properties.

Reference’s

The original PDF detailing the instrument can be downloaded here: http://scitechconnect.elsevier.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Baboons-Chapter.pdf

Additional instrument details can be found here: http://pubpages.unh.edu/ch‎arckb/SELFMON2.html

• Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30: 526-537.
• Snyder, M., & Gangestad, S. (1986). On the nature of self-monitoring: Matters of assessment, matters of validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51: 125-139.
• Gangestad, S. W., & Snyder, M. (1985). ‘To carve nature at its joints’: On the existence of discrete classes in personality. Psychological Review, 92: 317-349.
• Anderson, L. R. (1991). Testretest reliability of the revised self-monitoring scale over a two-year period. Psychological Reports: 68, 1057-1058.
• Gangestad, S. W., & Snyder, M. (2000). Self-monitoring: Appraisal and reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 126: 530-555.
• Day, D. V., Shleicher, D. J., Unckless, A. L., & Hiller, N. (2002). Self-monitoring personality at work: A meta-analytic investigation of construct validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 390-401.
• Ghorbani, N., Watson, P. J., & Weathington, B. L. (2009). Mindfulness in Iran and the United States: Cross-cultural structural complexity and parallel relationships with psychological adjustment. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 28: 211-224.
• Leary, Mark R., Jongman-Sereno, Katrina P., and Diebels, Kate J. (2015). Measures of Concerns with Public Image and Social Evaluation. in Gregory Boyle, Donald H. Saklofske and Gerald Matthews. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Constructs. Elsevier, Pages 448–473.

Items of the Self-Monitoring (SM) Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people. (F)*

2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. (F)

3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like. (F)*

4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe. (F)*

5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information. (T)*

6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people. (T)*

7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues. (T)

8. I would probably make a good actor. (T)*

9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music. (F)

10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am. (T)

11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone. (T)

12. In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention. (F)*

13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons. (T)*

14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me. (F)*

15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be ha‎ving a good time. (T)

16. I’m not always the person I appear to be. (T)*

17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor. (F)*

18. I have considered being an entertainer. (T)*

19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else. (T)

20. I have never been good at games like ch‎arades or improvisational acting. (F)*

21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations. (F)*

22. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going. (F)*

23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should. (F)*

24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end). (T)*

25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.(T)*

Items marked (*): revised version

Items marked (F) are reverse scored (i.e., changed to T) before counting the number of (T) responses.