Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale

Abstract

The Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale (PPNSIE) is a specialized psychometric instrument designed to measure generalized expectancies concerning reinforcement control in young children. Developed by Nowicki and Duke in 1974, this scale adapts the theoretical framework of Locus of Control (LOC) to be developmentally appropriate for preschool and primary school populations. The primary objective is to differentiate between children who possess an internal locus of control—believing that outcomes are contingent upon their own behavior and effort—and those with an external locus of control—believing that outcomes are dictated by chance, luck, fate, or powerful external figures.

The PPNSIE is crucial for early identification of children whose external orientation may impact their motivation, academic achievement, and social learning experiences. It typically consists of 34 items requiring simple ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ responses, making it suitable for interview administration with young subjects.

Keywords

Locus of Control, Internal-External Control, Preschool Assessment, Primary School, Nowicki and Duke, Developmental Psychology, Expectancy Theory, Psychometrics

Authors

Stephen Nowicki Jr., Marshall P. Duke

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale is to provide a reliable and valid assessment of a child’s generalized perception of reinforcement contingency. Prior to the development of the PPNSIE, existing measures of Locus of Control were often too complex or abstract for children in the preschool and early primary grades. The PPNSIE addresses this gap by phrasing questions in simple, concrete language relevant to the daily experiences of young children, such as interactions with parents, peers, and teachers.

A secondary, but highly important, purpose is to facilitate research into the developmental origins of LOC orientation. By accurately measuring this construct early in life, researchers can explore how early childhood experiences, parenting styles, and educational environments contribute to the formation of internal or external control beliefs, which are foundational to later adolescent and adult psychological functioning.

Construct

The PPNSIE measures the psychological construct of Locus of Control (LOC), a concept rooted in Julian Rotter’s social learning theory. LOC refers to the degree to which individuals believe that they have control over the outcomes of events in their lives.

• Internal Locus of Control: Children scoring high on internality believe that their successes and failures result from their own actions, abilities, and efforts. They are generally more proactive and seek information relevant to their goals.
• External Locus of Control: Children scoring high on externality believe that outcomes are determined by external forces outside their personal control, such as fate, luck, powerful others (parents, teachers), or unpredictable circumstances. High externality has been correlated in some studies with lower levels of academic motivation and increased feelings of helplessness.

The scale items are constructed to tap into these generalized expectancies across various domains, including achievement, affiliation, and physical health, ensuring a broad measure of the child’s control beliefs rather than domain-specific perceptions.

Validity

Initial studies by Nowicki and Duke (1974) and subsequent research focused on establishing the construct validity and concurrent validity of the PPNSIE. Evidence for validity often relies on correlations between PPNSIE scores and relevant behavioral measures or other established psychological scales.

Specifically, strong evidence for concurrent validity is demonstrated when PPNSIE scores correlate significantly with scores on other established LOC measures designed for slightly older children (such as the Nowicki-Strickland Children’s Locus of Control Scale). Furthermore, predictive validity has been investigated by examining the relationship between external LOC scores and outcomes such as lower grades, reduced persistence in tasks, and higher levels of dependency observed in the classroom setting. The scale has demonstrated the ability to differentiate between children who exhibit self-directed behavior versus those who rely heavily on external guidance.

Reliability

Reliability estimates for the PPNSIE typically focus on ensuring both internal consistency and test-retest stability, given the developmental volatility of the target population. Initial reports suggested acceptable levels of internal consistency, often measured using the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) due to the dichotomous (Yes/No) nature of the responses. Reliability coefficients generally increase with the age of the child, reflecting greater stability in control expectancies as children mature.

Test-retest reliability studies, conducted over periods ranging from a few weeks to several months, have generally yielded moderate to high correlation coefficients, indicating that the child’s generalized LOC orientation measured by the PPNSIE remains relatively stable during the primary school years. This stability is critical for the scale’s utility in longitudinal developmental research.

Factor Analysis

While the PPNSIE was originally designed as a unidimensional measure of generalized Locus of Control (a single continuum from internal to external), subsequent applications using Factor analysis have occasionally explored potential subscales or domain specificity within the instrument. Some research has suggested that LOC in young children might not be purely monolithic, potentially separating into factors such as control over academic outcomes, control over social interactions, or control over physical/health outcomes.

However, the predominant use of the PPNSIE remains centered on deriving a single, total score reflecting the overall degree of external control. High external scores (the number of external responses) are typically used for clinical and research interpretation.

Instrument

Test Type: Psychometric Self-Report Inventory (often administered via interview for this age group)

Format: 34 items requiring dichotomous responses (Yes/No)

Language Available: Primarily English (translations may exist in subsequent research)

Population Group: Children

Age Group: Preschool and Primary School (approximately ages 3 to 9)

Population Details: Developed and validated on typical developing populations in the United States, though used internationally thereafter.

Test Methodology: The scale is usually administered individually in an interview format to ensure comprehension of the items, given the young age of the respondents. Scoring involves tallying the number of external responses, with a higher score indicating a greater external locus of control.

Keywords

Child development, Personality assessment, Internal control, External control, Rotter, Internal consistency, Test-retest reliability, Early childhood education, Factor analysis

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not available in source or standard documentation for 1974)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not available)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Typically associated with Emory University at the time of publication)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was published in 1974. As a standard academic measure, permission for research use is often granted freely by contacting the primary authors or their affiliated institutions, though commercial use may require specific licensing. The original publication detailing the scale can be found here: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/10/6/874/.

A related academic thesis utilizing the PPNSIE provides further context regarding its application. The original PDF can be downloaded here: http://eprints.worc.ac.uk/1431/1/Y.Stollard_-_Thesis_2011.pdf.

Reference’s

• Nowicki, S., & Duke, M. P. (1974). A locus of control scale for preschool and primary children. Developmental Psychology, 10(6), 874-880. http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/10/6/874/
• Stollard, Y. (2011). An investigation into the relationship between the locus of control and attachment styles of primary school children (Doctoral dissertation, University of Worcester). http://eprints.worc.ac.uk/1431/1/Y.Stollard_-_Thesis_2011.pdf

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Items of the Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. Do you believe that you can stop yourself from catching a cold?
2. Do you feel that getting the teacher to like you is very important?
3. Do you have a good luck ch‎arm?
4. Are you often blamed for things that just aren’t your fault?
5. Will people like you no matter how you act?
6. If you ask for something enough‚ will you get it?
7. Do you believe that wishing can make good things happen?
8. When a kid your age decides to hit you‚ is there anything you can do to stop him or her?
9. Can you get friends to do what you want them to do?
10. Do you have a lucky number?
11. Can you get your Mommy and Daddy to do what you want to do instead of what they want to do?
12. Does whether or not Mommy and Daddy like you depend on how you act?
13. Do you always do the right things?
14. When people were mean to you‚ was it usually for no reason at all?
15. Do you ever say anything that makes somebody else feel bad?
16. When you do something wrong is there little you can do to make it right again?
17. Most of the time do you find it easy to get your own way at home?
18. Do you always wash your hands before every meal?
19. Do you sometimes feel like staying home from school even if you’re not sick?
20. Are most kids just born good at running races?
21. When somebody your age wants to be your enemy‚ is there anything you can do to make him or her like you?
22. Should your Mommy and Daddy decide what you should do?
23. Is it almost impossible to try to win a game because most of the other kids are just plain better than you are?
24. Do you sometimes tell a little lie?
25. When a person doesn’t like you is there anything you can do about it?
26. Are most of the other boys your age stronger than you are?
27. Are you the kind of child who believes that thinking about what you are going to do makes things turn out better?
28. Do you think it’s better to be smart than to be lucky?
29. Are you always polite to older people?
30. When another child hits you‚ is it usually because of something you did?
31. Do you always listen to your parents?
32. Is one of the best ways to handle a problem just not to think about it?
33. Do you ever get angry?
34. Can you make other kids like you?

The source material also noted potential item duplications that may be interpreted by children:

• Items 14 & 25
• Items 1‚ 18‚ & 21
• Items 7‚ 10‚ 16‚ & 12
• Items 6 & 13
• Items 23 & 26