Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale

Abstract

The Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale (PPNSIE) is a specialized psychological instrument designed to assess the locus of control construct in young children, specifically those in the preschool and primary school age range. Developed by Stephen Nowicki and Marshall P. Duke in 1974, this scale is an adaptation of the original Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale, tailored with simpler language and content appropriate for early childhood development.

The PPNSIE measures the degree to which a child perceives life outcomes—such as rewards and punishments—as contingent upon their own actions and efforts (internal control) versus external forces such as fate, luck, or the power of others (external control). The scale consists of 34 dichotomous (Yes/No) items focusing on common social and academic situations encountered by young children, providing a quick and reliable assessment of generalized expectancy of control.

Keywords

Locus of Control, Internal-External Control, Psychological Scale, Developmental Psychology, Preschool, Primary School, Children’s Assessment, Nowicki and Duke.

Authors

Stephen Nowicki, Marshall P. Duke

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the PPNSIE is to provide a standardized, age-appropriate measure of the generalized expectancy of control in children aged approximately three to nine years. This assessment is critical because the development of control orientation during early childhood significantly impacts later motivation, academic engagement, and coping mechanisms.

By assessing whether a child attributes success or failure primarily to internal factors (e.g., effort, ability) or external factors (e.g., luck, powerful adults), the scale allows researchers and clinicians to identify early patterns of attribution styles. This information is valuable for intervening in educational or therapeutic settings where maladaptive externalizing beliefs may hinder development.

Construct

The PPNSIE measures the psychological construct of Internal-External Control, which is grounded in Julian Rotter’s Social Learning Theory. This construct represents an individual’s generalized belief system regarding the causal links between their behavior and the subsequent outcomes they experience.

Scores on the PPNSIE reflect a continuum: a tendency toward an external locus of control (high score) suggests the child believes outcomes are determined by forces beyond their personal control, such as chance or powerful individuals. Conversely, a tendency toward an internal locus of control (low score) signifies the child believes outcomes are largely dependent upon their personal competence, effort, and decisions. The scale is designed to capture this fundamental dimension of personality as it manifests in young children’s daily lives.

Validity

Construct validity for the PPNSIE has been supported by findings that scores correlate predictably with other relevant psychological variables in developmental populations. For instance, internal locus of control scores are typically associated with higher levels of academic achievement, greater persistence in challenging tasks, and better overall adjustment, providing evidence that the scale measures the intended motivational construct.

Furthermore, content validity is ensured by the instrument’s design, where the 34 items specifically address scenarios common to the experiences of preschool and primary school children, covering interactions in the family, peer group, and school environment, thus reflecting the full scope of the control concept at this developmental stage.

Reliability

The reliability of the PPNSIE is generally reported as adequate for an instrument designed for young populations, who often exhibit greater variability in response patterns. Internal consistency, typically assessed using measures such as the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20), usually falls within acceptable ranges (e.g., .50 to .70) as cited in the foundational research, demonstrating that the items coherently measure a single underlying construct.

Test-retest reliability studies have indicated moderate stability of scores over short time intervals (e.g., several weeks). This temporal stability suggests that the PPNSIE measures a relatively stable personality trait (control orientation) rather than fleeting situational influences or momentary psychological states, making it useful for longitudinal studies in developmental psychology.

Factor Analysis

In contrast to more complex adult scales, factor analysis of the PPNSIE generally supports a unidimensional model of the locus of control construct for preschool and primary school children. This finding suggests that at this early stage of cognitive development, children tend to perceive control as a single, overarching dimension rather than differentiating between control by “powerful others” and control by “chance.”

The original work by Nowicki and Duke focused on establishing the PPNSIE as a reliable measure of this single general expectancy, suitable for broad screening and research applications in early childhood settings.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report or Interview-administered psychological scale.

Format: 34 dichotomous (Yes/No) items. The scale is scored by counting the number of external responses. Higher scores indicate a greater tendency toward an external locus of control.

Language Available: Primarily English, with published translations and adaptations available for cross-cultural research.

Population Group: Children.

Age Group: Preschool and Primary school ages (typically ranging from 3 to 9 years old).

Population Details: Developed based on normative data collected from diverse samples of young children in the United States.

Test Methodology: Due to the cognitive limitations and reading ability of the target group, the scale is typically administered individually and orally by a trained examiner. This method ensures that the child understands the content of each item before responding.

Keywords

Children’s Locus of Control, PPNSIE, Internal Control, External Control, Psychological Measurement, Attribution Theory, 1974.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not available in source documentation).

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not available in source documentation).

Correspondence Address: N/A (Refer to the original 1974 publication in Developmental Psychology for correspondence details).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale was first published in 1974. The scale is widely recognized and used in academic settings. While the core instrument is often available for non-commercial academic research, users seeking official administration guidelines or commercial use should contact the original authors or their affiliated universities for permission and current fee structures.

Reference’s

The primary reference for the development and validation of the scale is:

• Nowicki, S., & Duke, M. P. (1974). A preschool and primary internal-external control scale. Developmental Psychology, 10(6), 874–880. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/10/6/874/

Further scholarly discussion and application can be found in resources such as this academic thesis. The original PDF can be downloaded here: http://eprints.worc.ac.uk/1431/1/Y.Stollard_-_Thesis_2011.pdf

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Items of the Nowicki Preschool and Primary Internal-External Control Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

• 1. Do you believe that you can stop yourself from catching a cold?
• 2. Do you feel that getting the teacher to like you is very important?
• 3. Do you have a good luck charm?
• 4. Are you often blamed for things that just aren’t your fault?
• 5. Will people like you no matter how you act?
• 6. If you ask for something enough‚ will you get it?
• 7. Do you believe that wishing can make good things happen?
• 8. When a kid your age decides to hit you‚ is there anything you can do to stop him or her?
• 9. Can you get friends to do what you want them to do?
• 10. Do you have a lucky number?
• 11. Can you get your Mommy and Daddy to do what you want to do instead of what they want to do?
• 12. Does whether or not Mommy and Daddy like you depend on how you act?
• 13. Do you always do the right things?
• 14. When people were mean to you‚ was it usually for no reason at all?
• 15. Do you ever say anything that makes somebody else feel bad?
• 16. When you do something wrong is there little you can do to make it right again?
• 17. Most of the time do you find it easy to get your own way at home?
• 18. Do you always wash your hands before every meal?
• 19. Do you sometimes feel like staying home from school even if you’re not sick?
• 20. Are most kids just born good at running races?
• 21. When somebody your age wants to be your enemy‚ is there anything you can do to make him or her like you?
• 22. Should your Mommy and Daddy decide what you should do?
• 23. Is it almost impossible to try to win a game because most of the other kids are just plain better than you are?
• 24. Do you sometimes tell a little lie?
• 25. When a person doesn’t like you is there anything you can do about it?
• 26. Are most of the other boys your age stronger than you are?
• 27. Are you the kind of child who believes that thinking about what you are going to do makes things turn out better?
• 28. Do you think it’s better to be smart than to be lucky?
• 29. Are you always polite to older people?
• 30. When another child hits you‚ is it usually because of something you did?
• 31. Do you always listen to your parents?
• 32. Is one of the best ways to handle a problem just not to think about it?
• 33. Do you ever get angry?
• 34. Can you make other kids like you?

Questions which may be interpreted by children as duplications:

• 14 & 25
• 1‚ 18‚ & 21
• 7‚ 10‚ 16‚ & 12
• 6 & 13
• 23 & 26