Antecedents of Work-From-Home Adjustment – Model Questionnaire

Abstract

The Antecedents of Work-From-Home Adjustment—Model (Afota et al., 2023) is a comprehensive psychological instrument developed to quantify and understand the factors influencing employee adaptation to remote work settings, specifically within the United States and European contexts. Grounded theoretically in Signaling Theory, the measure identifies critical organizational cues, such as the Psychological Climate for Face Time (the perceived value of physical presence), and Perceived Availability Expectations, as crucial antecedents of successful Work-From-Home Adjustment.

The scale items were adapted and reworded from established prior research (Hoang et al., 2008; Day et al., 2012; Venkatesh & Speier, 2000) to ensure high applicability to the modern remote work environment. To facilitate use across multiple countries, the instrument underwent a rigorous translation and back-translation protocol for French and Spanish, confirming its cross-cultural suitability. The resulting measure was validated using a sample of work-from-home employees located in the US, Spain, and France, with detailed reports provided on its factor structure, reliability, and measurement invariance across these distinct groups.

Keywords

COVID-19 Pandemic, Psychological Climate for Face Time, Perceived Availability Expectations, Signaling Theory, Work-From-Home Adjustment, Work-From-Home Enjoyment, Employee Productivity, Occupational Adjustment, Organizational Climate, Telecommuting.

Authors

Marie-Colombe Afota, Yanick Provost Savard, Ariane Ollier-Malaterre, Emmanuelle Léon.

Purpose

The central objective of the Antecedents of Work-From-Home Adjustment—Model is to provide a standardized, psychometrically sound measure for assessing employee adaptation to remote work settings. Developed primarily for use within the cultural and organizational contexts of the United States and European nations, the scale addresses the increasing necessity for validated tools following the widespread shift to remote work during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic.

A significant aspect of its purpose is the empirical investigation of factors that precede and influence successful adjustment. Specifically, the instrument aims to map the impact of Psychological Climate for Face Time—the degree to which an organization implicitly or explicitly values physical office presence—and the pressure created by Perceived Availability Expectations (the requirement to be responsive outside standard work hours). By quantifying these antecedents, the scale offers researchers and organizations a robust framework to diagnose and improve the remote work experience, ultimately supporting positive Work-From-Home Adjustment.

Construct

The primary construct measured is Work-From-Home Adjustment (WFH Adjustment). This construct is operationalized as a multidimensional concept comprising an employee’s subjective experience of remote work, segmented into three measurable outcomes: WFH Enjoyment, WFH Productivity, and overall WFH Evaluation.

The model also incorporates two critical antecedents hypothesized to influence this adjustment: Psychological Climate for Face Time (an employee’s perception that physical presence is organizationally valued) and Perceived Availability Expectations (the perceived pressure to be constantly available, often outside of regular working hours).

Validity

Data regarding the specific forms of validity (e.g., criterion-related validity or convergent/discriminant validity) for this instrument were not explicitly detailed in the source documentation. Researchers are encouraged to consult the primary publication for any updates or subsequent validation studies that may have been published since the initial release in 2023.

Reliability

The reliability of the Antecedents of Work-From-Home Adjustment—Model was established through the assessment of internal consistency. Using Cronbach’s alpha, the developers confirmed that all subscales and measured constructs within the instrument demonstrated robust consistency.

Specifically, the reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were consistently above the commonly accepted threshold of 0.70. This statistical evidence suggests a good level of internal consistency, indicating that the items designed to measure each specific construct are highly inter-correlated and reliably measure the same underlying concept.

Factor Analysis

The latent structure of the questionnaire was thoroughly examined using both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The EFA results supported a clear three-factor solution underlying the WFH adjustment components, collectively accounting for a substantial 82.1% of the total variance observed in the data, thereby supporting the proposed dimensionality.

The subsequent CFA validated the baseline measurement model’s fit to the data, demonstrating strong indices, including: χ²(59) = 95.24, CFI = .989, RMSEA = .034, and SRMR = .042 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). This baseline model was determined to outperform more parsimonious alternatives when compared using the Satorra-Bentler scaled χ² difference test (Satorra & Bentler, 2001), indicating a superior fit for the hypothesized structure.

Furthermore, the researchers assessed Measurement Invariance to ensure that the scale operates similarly across different geographic groups (US versus France/Spain respondents). Support was found for configural invariance (χ²(118) = 150.76, CFI = .990, RMSEA = .032, SRMR = .044), confirming that the same factor structure holds across these groups. Although the significant χ² difference test did not fully support metric and scalar invariance, these forms of invariance were supported by the commonly used criterion of ΔCFI < −.01 (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002), suggesting that factor loadings and intercepts are largely equivalent, permitting meaningful cross-cultural comparison of latent means.

Instrument

Test Type: Original Inventory/Questionnaire designed to measure Work-From-Home Adjustment.

Format: The instrument is a 14-item measure utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Administration is electronic. The full text of the items, including the subscales for Psychological Climate for Face Time, Perceived Availability Expectations, WFH Enjoyment, WFH Productivity, and WFH Evaluation, is available in the Appendix of the source reference (Page 2796).

Language Available: English, French, and Spanish.

Population Group: Human participants, including both males and females.

Age Group: No data is Available.

Population Details: The target respondents for this instrument are work-from-home employees located in the United States, Spain, and France.

Test Methodology:

• Test Reliability: Assessed to ensure consistency of the measure.

• Internal Consistency: Evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha.

• Factor Analysis: Both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were employed to identify and confirm the underlying factor structure.

• Measurement Invariance: Conducted to determine if the scale operates similarly across different groups (e.g., US vs. France/Spain respondents).

• Measurement Model: The overall statistical model defining the relationship between observed variables and latent constructs was rigorously tested.

Keywords

Telecommuting, Organizational Climate, Employee Attitudes, Measurement Invariance, Internal Consistency, WFH Productivity, WFH Evaluation, Employee Characteristics, Expectations, Occupational Adjustment.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: No data is Available.

Affiliation Email addresses: Marie-Colombe Afota (Université de Montréal School of Industrial Relations (ÉRI)), Yanick Provost Savard (Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) Department of Psychology), Ariane Ollier-Malaterre (Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) School of Management (ESG)), Emmanuelle Léon (ESCP Business School Department of Management).

Correspondence Address: Afota, Marie-Colombe: Université de Montréal, School of Industrial Relations (ÉRI), 3150, rue Jean-Brillant, Montréal, Quebec, Canada, H3T 1N8, [email protected].

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions: Contact Publisher

Fee: No

Commercial: No

Test Year: 2023

Reference’s

Afota, M.-C., Provost Savard, Y., Ollier-Malaterre, A., & Léon, E. (2023). Work-from-home adjustment in the US and Europe: The role of psychological climate for face time and perceived availability expectations. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(14), 2765–2796. doi:10.1080/09585192.2022.2090269

Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 233–255.

Day, A. L., Scott, C. G., & Kelloway, E. K. (2012). Information and communication technology (ICT) and work-family conflict: The role of perceived availability expectations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(3), 324–336.

Hoang, T. D., Day, A. L., & Kelloway, E. K. (2008). Psychological climate for face time: A new measure. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13(4), 302–314.

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66(4), 507–514.

Schaffer, B. S., & Riordan, C. M. (2003). A review of cross-cultural methodologies for organizational research: A best-practices approach. Organizational Research Methods, 6(2), 169–215.

Staples, D. S., Wong, I., & Seddon, P. B. (1999). A study of the factors affecting the adoption of telecommuting. Journal of Management Information Systems, 16(2), 43–64.

Venkatesh, V., & Speier, C. (2000). Creating an effective web presence: A longitudinal study of the effects of website quality on user attitudes and behavior. MIS Quarterly, 24(2), 219–243.

Items of the Antecedents of Work-From-Home Adjustment–Model Questionnaire

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Psychological Climate for Face Time (Hoang et al., 2008)

1. [Organization name] has a high level of trust in remote workers that they would fulfill their daily responsibility remotely. (R)

2. At [Organization name], the reduced physical visibility of a remote worker does NOT inhibit his/her career goal achievement. (R)

3. The culture of [Organization name] is still predominantly office-centric, and thus being a remote worker is a disadvantage.

Perceived Availability Expectations (Day et al., 2012)

1. I am expected to check e-mail and/or voicemail outside of regular work hours.

2. I am contacted about work-related issues outside of regular work hours.

Country Context

Which country do you currently work in?

1. US

2. France

3. Spain

Work-from-Home Enjoyment (adapted from Venkatesh & Speier, 2000)

1. I find working remotely to be enjoyable.

2. Working remotely is pleasant.

Work-from-Home Productivity (adapted from Venkatesh & Speier, 2000)

1. Working remotely improves my performance in my job.

2. Working remotely increases my productivity.

3. Working remotely enhances my effectiveness in my job.

Work-from-Home Evaluation (adapted from Staples et al., 1999)

1. Overall, employees are more productive in a traditional office setting than when they work remotely.

2. Overall, it is more difficult for employees to do the job being remotely managed.

3. Working remotely is a less efficient way to work than working in a traditional office setting.

Note: Items are rated using a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).