Assessing Study Entry Self-Efficacy Scale (SESW)

Abstract

The Assessing Study Entry Self-Efficacy Scale (SESW) is a specialized psychometric instrument designed to measure the context-specific self-efficacy beliefs of university freshmen. Originating from the foundational work on self-efficacy by Bandura (1977), the scale focuses specifically on students’ confidence in their ability to successfully overcome challenges encountered during the initial phase of their studies (the first two semesters). The distinction between general and context-specific self-efficacy is crucial, as context-specific measures, in line with Brunswik’s principle of predictor-criterion symmetry (1955), provide superior predictive power for academic outcomes such as student attrition and satisfaction.

The SESW consists of 13 items organized under a hierarchical model comprising three first-order subscales. Psychometric evaluation demonstrates strong internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha > .88; McDonald’s Omega = .90) and acceptable retest stability, consistent with the dynamic nature of self-efficacy as a construct. The scale has demonstrated both construct validity and predictive validity regarding relevant criteria like dropout intention and study satisfaction. Reference data collected from a large sample of freshmen (N = 1842) in Germany are available for interpretation.

Keywords

Self-efficacy, Study Entry, Freshmen, Student Dropout, Academic Challenges, Context-Specific Self-Efficacy, Predictive Validity

Authors

Pascale Stephanie Petri

Purpose

The primary purpose of the SESW scale is to reliably assess the level of context-specific self-efficacy among university freshmen, particularly in the German higher education context. Given that student attrition is a widespread phenomenon (with approximately 28% dropout rates in German undergraduate programs, often occurring early in the study phase), reliable measurement of key predictors is essential for targeted institutional intervention.

The SESW was explicitly developed to address a gap in existing literature, where most academic self-efficacy scales were either designed for non-entry phases, specific disciplines (e.g., Psychology), or foreign educational systems, often requiring complex translation and cultural equivalence checks. The SESW is designed as a cross-disciplinary screening instrument, differentiating particularly well among students exhibiting lower levels of self-efficacy, thereby enabling the reliable identification of those at higher risk of academic difficulty or dropout.

Construct

The scale measures Study Entrance Self-Efficacy (Studieneinstiegsselbstwirksamkeit). This construct is defined as a freshman student’s confidence in their own competence to successfully manage the typical academic and organizational challenges encountered during the first two university semesters.

The theoretical foundation rests on Bandura’s social cognitive theory, emphasizing the dynamic and context-specific nature of self-efficacy beliefs. The scale development process identified core academic challenges faced by German freshmen based on comprehensive student and professor surveys, ensuring the items reflect specific, relevant tasks (e.g., self-management, time organization, and handling complex subject matter).

Validity

Evidence for the scale’s validity was established through several psychometric assessments:

• Content and Factorial Validity: The scale development systematically incorporated challenges identified across multiple large-scale student and professor surveys, ensuring content relevance. Structural equation modeling (N = 1842) confirmed the postulated hierarchical structure, consisting of a general SESW factor and three first-order factors, showing acceptable model fit (SRMR = .041, CFI = .928, RMSEA = .075).

• Construct Validity (Convergent and Discriminant): Convergent validity was supported by a significant, positive correlation between the SESW score and the General Self-Efficacy Scale ($r_s = .57, p < .001$). Discriminant validity was indicated by the expected non-significant relationship between the SESW score and performance on a cognitive ability test ($r_s = .15, p = .096$), suggesting the SESW measures confidence rather than objective cognitive skill.

• Criterion Validity: The SESW demonstrated predictive validity in longitudinal studies. SESW scores measured at the beginning of the first semester significantly correlated with lower dropout intention ($r_s = .16, p < .001$) and higher study satisfaction ($r_s = .14, p = .003$) reported at the end of the study entry phase (nine months later).

Reliability

The SESW demonstrates high internal consistency and acceptable stability, supporting its use for both group and individual diagnostics.

• Internal Consistency: Based on the reference sample (N = 1842), the internal consistency coefficients are very good: Cronbach’s Alpha ($alpha$) = .88 (95% CI [.88; .89]) and McDonald’s Omega ($omega$) = .90. Item analysis based on Classical Test Theory (KTT) showed item-total correlations (item discriminability) mostly above the recommended threshold of .50 (except for Item 01), indicating strong homogeneity among the items.

• Test-Retest Reliability: Given that context-specific self-efficacy is a dynamic construct subject to change based on new experiences, a moderate stability coefficient was expected. The scale showed stability over a four-month period ($r_{t1t2} = .48, p < .01$) and over the full nine-month longitudinal study period ($r_{t1t3} = .35, p < .01$).

Further analysis using Item Response Theory (IRT), specifically the Graded Response Model (GRM), confirms that the SESW is most effective as a screening tool, providing the highest test information at lower levels of the latent variable (Study Entrance Self-Efficacy), suggesting strong differentiation among students who report low confidence.

Factor Analysis

The internal structure of the SESW is modeled hierarchically and was tested using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) on the comparison sample (N = 1842).

The model posits a single, overarching latent variable, Study Entrance Self-Efficacy (SESW), which is measured through three first-order factors:

• Fristen und Strategien (FuS): Deadlines and Strategies (8 items).

• Motivation und Kognition (MuK): Motivation and Cognition (3 items).

• Kognitive Herausforderungen (kH): Cognitive Challenges (2 items).

The hierarchical model demonstrated a good fit to the data. While the use of the overall SESW general factor score (the mean of all 13 items) is recommended for applied diagnostic contexts, the subscales are useful for research purposes requiring a more differentiated view of the construct. Furthermore, the scale demonstrated strict measurement invariance across three separate cohorts of freshmen, supporting the generalizability of the factor structure and measurement properties over time and across different academic entry years.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Context-specific self-efficacy scale (Personality/Non-Cognitive)

Format: 13 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = gar nicht [not at all] to 5 = voll und ganz [fully and completely])

Language Available: German (Deutsch)

Population Group: University Freshmen (Studienanfänger*innen)

Age Group: Typically 18-25 years old (undergraduate entry age)

Population Details: Students in undergraduate degree programs during their first and second university semesters in Germany. The scale is suitable for use across all disciplines and types of higher education institutions.

Test Methodology: Administration can be done either via paper-pencil or online survey mode. The instrument is highly economical, requiring only 3-5 minutes (paper-pencil) or 1.5-3 minutes (online) to complete. All items are positively keyed, and the scale score is calculated as the unweighted mean of all 13 items, ranging from [1; 5].

Keywords

Psychological Assessment, Higher Education, Academic Success, Measurement Invariance, Freshmen Screening, Psychometrics

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected]

Correspondence Address: Pascale Stephanie Petri, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Psychologische Diagnostik, Otto-Behaghel-Straße 10F, D-35394 Gießen, Germany

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The status of development is validated (validiert). The scale holds the TBS-DTK Transparency Certificate and the ZIS_DIN-Screen cachet. Information regarding specific permissions and fees is not detailed in the source abstract. The reference data for norms were collected in the Winter Semester 2018/2019 (N=1842).

A table with T-values (Norm table) for the SESW scale is available in the original documentation (the link to the PDF is found here in the source document).

Reference’s

The development and validation of the SESW scale rely on several key references, including seminal works in self-efficacy theory and empirical studies on student success and attrition in Germany:

• Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.

• Bargel, T. (2015). Studienanfänger im 12. Studierendensurvey: Eine Analyse von Daten des Bundesministeriums für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF).

• Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (2006). Career self-efficacy theory: Back to the future. Journal of Career Assessment, 14(3), 3–27.

• Brunswik, E. (1955). Representative design and probabilistic theory in functional psychology. Psychological Review, 62(3), 193–217.

• Ehrlich, S. (2016). Studierendenbefragung an der Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen 2016.

• Heublein, U., Hutzsch, C., Schreiber, J., Sommer, D., & Spangenberg, H. (2017). Zwischen Studienerwartungen und Studienwirklichkeit: Ursachen des Studienabbruchs.

• Hiemisch, A., Scherer, S., & Trost, G. (2005). Skala zur Erfassung der Studienzufriedenheit (SZS).

• Horstmann, M., & Hachmeister, K. (2016). Welche Fähigkeiten und Voraussetzungen sollten Studierende je nach Studienfach mitbringen? Erkenntnisse aus der CHE-Professorenbefragung.

• Lüdtke, O., Robitzsch, A., & Trautwein, U. (2007). Umgang mit fehlenden Werten in der psychologischen Forschung. Diagnostica, 53(1), 17–31.

• Petri, P. S., Ulfert, A. S., Ott, T., Bothe, K., & Kersting, M. (2019). Development and validation of the Study Entry Self-Efficacy Scale (SESW). (Reference to be completed upon publication).

• Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387.

• Robbins, S. B., Lauver, K., Le, H., Davis, D., Langley, R., & Carlstrom, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 261–288.

• Rubin, D. B. (1976). Inference and missing data. Biometrika, 63(3), 581–592.

• Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1999). Skala zur Erfassung der allgemeinen Selbstwirksamkeit (SWE).

Items of the assessing study entry self-efficacy scale (SESW)

Instruction: Im Folgenden geht es um Ihren Studieneinstieg. Bitte geben Sie an, inwieweit Sie sich zutrauen, … (The following concerns your entry into studies. Please indicate to what extent you feel capable of…)

Anmerkungen: FuS = Fristen und Strategien (Deadlines and Strategies), MuK = Motivation und Kognition (Motivation and Cognition), kH = kognitive Herausforderungen (Cognitive Challenges).