Audit of Principal Effectiveness

Abstract

The Audit of Principal Effectiveness (APE) is an instrument developed by Valentine and Bowman (1988) designed to measure and provide feedback on the administrative and instructional leadership skills of school principals. Its foundation lies in the established body of effective school literature, which identifies key behavioral characteristics associated with successful school leadership, such as assertiveness, organizational skills, and high expectations. Originally comprising 162 items across 12 theoretical constructs, the final refined instrument consists of 110 items divided into two forms (A and B), yielding nine distinct factors related to leadership, organizational management, and interpersonal relations.

Keywords

Audit of Principal Effectiveness, school leadership, principal assessment, instructional leadership, school administration, effective schools movement, teacher feedback.

Authors

Valentine, J. W., Bowman, M. L.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Audit of Principal Effectiveness (APE) is to offer comprehensive and actionable feedback to school principals regarding their administrative and supervisory competencies. By utilizing teacher perceptions, the instrument provides a structured evaluation of how effectively the principal enacts behaviors linked to superior school performance and a positive organizational climate.

The scale serves as instrumentation for research into principalship, allowing researchers to correlate specific leadership behaviors with measurable school outcomes. Furthermore, its results can guide professional development initiatives for school administrators by highlighting areas where a principal’s performance deviates from the characteristics identified in the seminal effective school literature.

Construct

The APE is fundamentally based on the construct of principal effectiveness, defined by a cluster of observable, high-impact administrative and instructional behaviors derived from research on effective schools. The initial framework identified nine critical characteristics that differentiate principals of highly effective schools:

• Are assertive instructional leaders.
• Are goal and task oriented.
• Are well organized.
• Convey high expectations for students and staff.
• Define and communicate policies effectively.
• Visit classrooms frequently.
• Are visible and available to students and staff.
• Provide strong support to teachers.
• Are adept at parent and community relations.

These characteristics formed the 12 theoretical constructs initially used during the item generation phase. The resulting empirical factors, derived from extensive factor analysis, operationalize this construct into measurable dimensions of leadership practice.

Validity

The development of the APE included robust examinations of its psychometric properties, specifically focusing on its validity. Studies were conducted to establish both congruent and discriminant validity. Establishing congruent validity ensures that the scale measures the intended construct by correlating highly with other measures of similar constructs (e.g., leadership effectiveness), while discriminant validity confirms that the scale is distinct from measures of unrelated concepts (e.g., general personality traits).

The foundational reliance on established research and the use of empirical data through factor analysis also contribute significantly to the instrument’s construct validity, ensuring the items accurately represent the theoretical dimensions of effective school leadership.

Reliability

Information regarding the reliability (e.g., internal consistency measures like Cronbach’s Alpha or test-retest reliability) was not explicitly detailed in the available source documentation. However, the rigorous scale construction process, which involved extensive item reduction based on high factor loadings (0.40 or higher), suggests an inherent effort to maximize the internal consistency and reliability of the resulting subscales.

Factor Analysis

A comprehensive factor analysis was performed using the responses collected from the standardization sample of 3,660 teachers. The analysis employed a varimax rotation method, which is commonly used to simplify the factor structure and enhance interpretability. Items were retained on a factor if they demonstrated a factor loading of 0.40 or higher.

This procedure reduced the original 162 items to a final instrument of 110 items (55 items on Form A and 55 items on Form B). The analysis yielded nine distinct, empirically derived factors across the two forms:

• Form A Factors (Five): Instructional Management, Teacher Relations, Directional Leadership, Affective Involvement, and Affective Congruence.
• Form B Factors (Four): Student Orientation, Organizational Development, Organizational Linkage, and Adaptive Leadership.

Instrument

Test Type: Questionnaire/Survey (Teacher Rating Scale)

Format: The instrument is divided into two forms, Form A and Form B, with 55 items each (110 total items). Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which each item is descriptive of the principal’s skill.

Language Available: English (Original development)

Population Group: Educational Administrators (Principals), evaluated by Teachers.

Age Group: Adults (Professional teachers rating adult principals)

Population Details: The standardization sample included 3,660 teachers randomly selected across the United States, representing seven geographic regions and diverse school levels (elementary, middle, and high school).

Test Methodology: Observational rating by teachers. Scoring requires respondents to indicate the degree to which an item is descriptive of the principal’s skill.

Keywords

APE, school administration, educational leadership, organizational development, instructional management, psychometric instrument, factor analysis, principal evaluation.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source.

Correspondence Address: Not provided in source.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was developed and documented in 1988 by Valentine and Bowman. The primary documentation is available through ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) as ERIC ED 311 554. Information regarding current usage permissions and associated fees must be sought directly from the authors or relevant educational research archives. The original PDF can be downloaded here: ERIC ED 311 554.

Reference’s

Valentine, J. W., & Bowman, M. L. (1988). The Audit of Principal Effectiveness: Instrumentation for principalship research. ERIC ED 311 554.

Edmonds, R. R. (1982). Programs of school improvement: An overview. Educational Leadership 40:4–11.

Sweeney, J. (1982). Research synthesis on effective school leadership. Educational Leadership 39:346–52.

Items of the Audit of Principal Effectiveness

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. The principal has high professional expectations and standards for self, faculty, and school.
2. The principal encourages changes in the school program that lead to a better school for the students.
3. The principal utilizes resources from outside the school to assist in the study, development, implementation, and/or evaluation of the school.
4. The principal informs staff of new developments and ideas in education.
5. The principal is able to anticipate the effects of decisions.
6. The principal utilizes a systematic process for change which is known and understood by the faculty.
7. When deserving, teachers are complimented by the principal in a sincere and honest manner.
8. The principal takes the time to listen to teachers.
9. The principal finds the time to interact with students.
10. The principal positively reinforces students.
11. The principal keeps teachers informed about those aspects of the school program of which they should be aware.
12. The principal communicates to teachers the reasons for administrative practices used in the school.
13. The principal works with other leaders of the school in the implementation of a team approach to managing the school.
14. The principal encourages faculty to be sensitive to the needs and values of other faculty in the school.
15. The principal is knowledgeable of the varied teaching strategies teachers might appropriately utilize during instruction.
16. The principal maintains an awareness and knowledge of recent research about the learning process.
17. The principal promotes the diagnosis of individual and group learning needs of students and application of appropri- ate instruction to meet those needs.
18. The principal uses objective data such as test scores to make changes in curriculum and staffing.