Blushing Propensity Scale (BPS)

Abstract

The Blushing Propensity Scale (BPS) is a widely recognized self-report measure developed primarily by Mark R. Leary and Sydney Meadows in 1991, with significant expansion provided by Susan M. Bögels and colleagues in 1996 for the Dutch version. The scale is designed to assess an individual’s trait-like tendency to experience involuntary facial reddening (blushing) across various demanding social situations. Originating in the field of Social Psychology, the BPS is a crucial tool for research into social anxiety, self-consciousness, and the physiological responses associated with social evaluation. It helps researchers quantify the subjective experience of blushing, distinguishing responses triggered by situational elicitors from generalized blushing propensity.

The instrument typically consists of 14 core items, expanded to 19 items in subsequent versions, particularly the Dutch adaptation, which added items related to meta-cognitive aspects like the anticipation or fear of blushing. Responses are captured using a 5-point frequency scale, and the factor structure generally separates items into factors related to being the center of attention, intimate social interaction, and self-fulfilling prophecy.

Keywords

Blushing Propensity Scale, BPS, Social anxiety, Self-consciousness, Blushing, Social evaluation, Propensity, Self-fulfilling prophecy, Facial coloration.

Authors

Mark R. Leary, Sydney Meadows, Susan M. Bögels, M. Alberts, Peter J. de Jong, S. Mulkens.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the BPS is to quantify the frequency and intensity with which an individual perceives themselves to blush in specific, socially evaluative or intimate contexts. It serves as a diagnostic and research instrument used to differentiate individuals high in blushing propensity from those who are less prone to this physiological reaction. By examining responses across a diverse range of scenarios, the scale helps identify the specific types of social interactions that trigger this response.

The scale is particularly useful for investigating the role of blushing in maintaining or exacerbating clinical conditions like social anxiety disorder, where the fear of blushing (erythrophobia) often becomes a central concern. The expanded Dutch version specifically includes items designed to measure the meta-cognitive components of blushing, such as the fear of being accused of blushing or anticipating the act itself, providing a more comprehensive measure for clinical applications.

Construct

The BPS measures blushing propensity, which is conceptualized as a stable personality trait reflecting an individual’s dispositional readiness to blush when exposed to perceived threats to their social image or reputation. Blushing is generally viewed in the psychological literature as a nonverbal signal of appeasement or admission of embarrassment, frequently occurring when attention is drawn to the self. The construct is closely related to concepts such as public self-consciousness and the fear of negative evaluation.

The scale operationalizes this construct by presenting respondents with common social situations known to elicit self-focused attention. Total scores reflect the degree to which individuals internalize and react physiologically to these socially salient events. Factor structure refinement highlighted that the construct is multi-faceted, encompassing reactions to being the center of attention, engaging in intimate social interaction, and experiencing a self-fulfilling prophecy regarding the act of blushing itself.

Validity

Studies examining the psychometric properties of the BPS have demonstrated strong construct validity. High scores on the BPS consistently correlate positively with established measures of public self-consciousness, social anxiety, and generalized fear of negative evaluation, confirming that the scale accurately measures a component of social discomfort and concern over social image management. The original 14-item version and the expanded 19-item Dutch version have both been utilized in validation studies across clinical and non-clinical samples.

Furthermore, the scale’s ability to differentiate between individuals who report high levels of trait blushing and those who do not supports its discriminant validity, particularly when used in conjunction with behavioral tasks or physiological measures of actual facial coloration. Research by Mulkens et al. (1997, 1999) further validated the scale’s utility in distinguishing between the fearful preoccupation associated with blushing and the actual physiological response.

Reliability

The BPS has demonstrated robust internal consistency across various research populations, generally yielding high Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (typically in the .80 to .90 range), indicating that the items reliably measure the same underlying construct of blushing propensity. This high internal consistency supports the use of the scale as a reliable composite measure.

Test-retest reliability has also been established in several studies, confirming the scale’s stability over time, consistent with the view that blushing propensity is a stable personality trait rather than a transient state. The consistent reliability across both the original English and the expanded Dutch translations further supports its widespread application in cross-cultural psychological research.

Factor Analysis

Factor analytic studies, particularly those conducted using the expanded 19-item version (Bögels et al., 1996), generally support a multi-dimensional structure for the BPS, suggesting that blushing is triggered by several distinct types of social threats. The scale typically yields three statistically separable factors:

• Centre of Attention: This factor captures blushing elicited when the individual is publicly scrutinized or spotlighted, such as giving a presentation or being praised (e.g., items 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, and 19).
• Intimate Social Interaction: This factor relates to blushing that occurs during close personal engagement or contexts involving potential romantic or sexual evaluation (e.g., items 2, 4, 8, 9, 14, 17, and 18).
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: This factor consists of meta-cognitive items focusing on the anticipation or fear of blushing itself, which are highly relevant in clinical contexts of erythrophobia (e.g., items 15 and 16).

This three-factor structure allows researchers to analyze specific social triggers and cognitive processes contributing to the overall tendency to blush.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Trait measure

Format: 14 (Original) or 19 (Expanded) items scored on a 5-point Likert scale.

Language Available: English (Original), Dutch (Expanded)

Population Group: General population; Clinical populations (specifically those with social anxiety or erythrophobia)

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults

Population Details: Used extensively in university student samples and clinical settings focusing on social phobia research.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate the frequency with which they feel themselves blush in each listed situation, using the following anchors:

1. I NEVER feel myself blush in this situation.
2. I RARELY feel myself blush in this situation.
3. I OCCASIONALLY feel myself blush in this situation.
4. I OFTEN feel myself blush in this situation.
5. I ALWAYS feel myself blush in this situation.

Keywords

Trait measure, Social phobia, Erythrophobia, Leary and Meadows, Social discomfort, Factor analysis, Self-report measure, Intimate social interaction.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original BPS was first published in 1991 by Leary & Meadows. The expanded Dutch version was published in 1996 by Bögels et al. The scale is typically available for free non-commercial academic research use, often accessible directly from the authors’ academic websites.

The instrument can be found at http://people.duke.edu/~leary/scales.html. The original PDF of the Dutch version publication can be downloaded here: http://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/22970/22970.PDF.

Reference’s

Bögels, S. M., Alberts, M., & de Jong, P. J. (1996). Self-consciousness, self-focused attention, blushing propensity and fear of blushing. Personality and Individual Differences, 21: 573-581.

Leary, M. R., & Meadows, S. (1991). Predictors, elicitors, and concomitants of social blushing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2): 254-262.

Mulkens, S., de Jong, P. J., & Bögels, S. M. (1997). High blushing propensity: fearful preoccupation or facial coloration?. Personality and individual differences, 22: 817-824.

Mulkens, S., de Jong, Peter J., Dobbelaar, A., Bögels, Susan M. (1999). Fear of blushing: fearful preoccupation irrespective of facial coloration. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37: 1119-1128.

Items of the Blushing Propensity Scale (BPS)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. When a teacher calls on me in class
2. When talking to someone about a personal topic
3. When I’m embarrassed
4. When I’m introduced to someone I don’t know
5. When I’ve been caught doing something improper or shameful
6. When I’m the center of attention
7. When a group of people sings Happy Birthday” to me
8. When I’m around someone I want to impress
9. When talking to a teacher or boss
10. When speaking in front of a group of people
11. When someone looks me right in the eye
12. When someone pays me a compliment
13. When I’ve looked stupid or incompetent in front of others
14. When I’m talking to a member of the other sex

Additional items In the Dutch version are:

15. When I’m being accused of blushing
16. When I think I may start blushing
17. When the subject of conversation is sex
18. When I’m interacting with someone who I find attractive
19. When I’m criticized