Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

Abstract

The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), developed by Pennebaker and Susman, is a brief self-report instrument designed to assess an individual’s exposure to and subjective processing of upsetting or traumatic experiences during childhood (prior to age 17). Crucially, this instrument moves beyond simple exposure recording to quantify the perceived traumatic severity of the event and the extent of subsequent social disclosure. Its core focus is on how individuals come to find meaning in these events, linking early life trauma processing to long-term psychological and physical well-being, often studied in relation to psychosomatic processes.

Keywords

Childhood trauma, traumatic experiences, meaning-making, disclosure, Pennebaker, Susman, psychosomatic processes, retrospective assessment, trauma exposure, cognitive activity

Authors

Pennebaker, J.W., Susman, J.R.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire is to assess the subjective impact and subsequent coping mechanisms related to early traumatic events. Unlike measures focused solely on the frequency or severity of abuse, this scale specifically aims to quantify the degree of trauma perceived by the respondent and their propensity for disclosure (confiding in others) regarding the event at the time it occurred.

The tool is utilized in research contexts to explore the fundamental psychological question of how individuals construct meaning from highly distressing experiences. This is important because the failure to integrate or disclose trauma is theoretically linked to increased psychosomatic processes and poorer health outcomes, forming the foundation of expressive writing and disclosure research.

Construct

The scale measures the construct of Trauma Exposure and Processing, categorized into two main components: exposure identification and processing assessment. Exposure identification involves determining the presence of six specified categories of early traumatic experiences (death, divorce/separation, violence, sexual abuse, illness/injury, or other major upheaval).

Processing assessment is captured by two critical dimensions for each identified event: the subjective rating of Traumatic Severity (measured on a 7-point scale) and the level of Social Disclosure (confiding in others, also on a 7-point scale). The underlying theoretical construct is that the interplay between the severity of the trauma and the individual’s subsequent open processing or suppression of the event influences long-term adjustment and health.

Validity

Validity for this instrument is primarily established through its theoretical grounding in the relationship between emotional disclosure and physical health outcomes, as detailed in the authors’ foundational work. The scale measures specific, identifiable events, lending it a degree of face validity regarding trauma exposure.

The predictive validity of the scale relies on demonstrating that the assessment of trauma severity and low social disclosure predicts negative health indicators or maladaptive coping strategies later in life, often operationalized through measures of physical illness or cognitive activity related to rumination or suppression. Researchers typically validate this instrument by correlating scores with measures of physical symptoms and psychological distress.

Reliability

Specific internal consistency (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha) or test-retest reliability figures for this particular iteration of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire focusing on disclosure are documented in the original academic literature. Given that the scale assesses distinct, non-overlapping categorical events (e.g., death vs. sexual abuse), traditional measures of internal consistency across all items may not be appropriate. Reliability is more relevant when evaluating the consistency of the 7-point rating scales used to measure subjective trauma severity and disclosure amount.

Users seeking detailed psychometrics information, including empirical data on reliability and validity, are directed to the primary source publication: Pennebaker, J.W. & Susman, J.R. (1988). Disclosure of traumas and psychosomatic processes. Social Science and Medicine, 26, 327-332.

Factor Analysis

A conventional factor analysis structure is not typically applied to the initial six categorical items of the Childhood Traumatic Events Scale, as they represent distinct categories of trauma exposure (e.g., death, divorce, abuse) rather than sub-factors of a single underlying psychological trait. However, factor analysis may be employed on the subjective ratings (severity and disclosure) across the different categories to determine if patterns of response—such as a general tendency toward non-disclosure—load onto a single factor representing a coping style.

In the context of the related research stream (expressive writing paradigm), the emphasis is less on the factor structure of the events themselves and more on analyzing the statistical relationship between the measured variables (event type, perceived severity, and disclosure level) and outcome variables (health and psychological functioning).

Instrument

Test Type: Retrospective Self-report Survey

Format: Questionnaire utilizing a mix of dichotomous (Yes/No) questions regarding event occurrence and 7-point Likert-type scales for subjective ratings of trauma severity and disclosure level.

Language Available: English (Primary publication language)

Population Group: Clinical and non-clinical adults, typically college students or community samples.

Age Group: Measures events occurring prior to age 17 (Childhood Scale) and within the last 3 years (Recent Scale).

Population Details: Respondents must be capable of recalling and rating past traumatic events. The scale is suitable for general psychological research exploring the long-term impact of early adversity.

Test Methodology: Respondents first identify if they experienced the specific traumatic event. If affirmed, they provide their age at the time of the event, rate its traumatic impact (1=not at all traumatic to 7=extremely traumatic), and rate their level of social confiding/disclosure (1=not at all to 7=a great deal).

Keywords

Trauma severity, social disclosure, retrospective recall, Pennebaker, psychosomatic health, meaning construction, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source content.

Correspondence Address: Not provided in source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

This specific instrument was published in 1988 as part of a research paper detailing the relationship between trauma disclosure and health outcomes. Permissions for its use are generally granted by the authors for non-commercial academic research, subject to standard citation requirements. No specific fee structure is detailed in the source material.

Test Year: 1988 (Publication of primary reference).

Reference’s

Pennebaker, J.W. & Susman, J.R. (1988). Disclosure of traumas and psychosomatic processes. Social Science and Medicine, 26, 327-332.

Items of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

For the following questions, answer each item that is relevant. Be as honest as you can. Each question refers to any event that you may have experienced prior to the age of 17.

1. Prior to the age of 17, did you experience a death of a very close friend or family

member?                 If yes, how old were you?                   

If yes, how traumatic was this? (using a 7-point scale, where 1 = not at all traumatic, 4 = somewhat traumatic, 7 = extremely traumatic)                 

If yes, how much did you confide in others about this traumatic experience at the time? (1 = not at all, 7 = a great deal)                 

2. Prior to the age of 17, was there a major upheaval between your parents (such as divorce, separation)? If yes, how old were you?                

If yes, how traumatic was this? (where 7 = extremely traumatic)              If yes, how much did you confide in others? (7 = a great deal)                 

3. Prior to the age of 17, did you have a traumatic sexual experience (raped, molested,

etc.)?              If yes, how old were you?               

If yes, how traumatic was this? (7 = extremely traumatic)              

If yes, how much did you confide in others? (7 = a great deal)              

4. Prior to the age of 17, were you the victim of violence (child abuse, mugged or assaulted —

other than sexual)?             If yes, how old were you?              

If yes, how traumatic was this? (7 = extremely traumatic)              

If yes, how much did you confide in others? (7 = a great deal)              

5. Prior to the age of 17, were you extremely ill or injured?  you?            

If yes, how old were

If yes, how traumatic was this? (7 = extremely traumatic)              

If yes, how much did you confide in others? (7 = a great deal)              

6. Prior to the age of 17, did you experience any other major upheaval that you think may have shaped your life or personality significantly? If yes, how old were you?              

If yes, what was the event?                                                                                If yes, how traumatic was this? (7 = extremely traumatic)                 

If yes, how much did you confide in others? (7 = a great deal)              

Recent Traumatic Events Scale

For the following questions, again answer each item that is relevant and again be as honest as you can. Each question refers to any event that you may have experienced within the last 3 years.

1. Within the last 3 years, did you experience a death of a very close friend or family member?

If yes, how traumatic was this? (1 = not at all traumatic, 7 = extremely traumatic)              

If yes, how much did you confide in others about the experience at the time? (1 = not at all, 7 = a great deal)              

2. Within the last 3 years, was there a major upheaval between you and your spouse (such as divorce, separation)?

If yes, how traumatic was this?           

If yes, how much did you confide in others?          

3. Within the last 3 years, did you have a traumatic sexual experience (raped, molested, )?

If yes, how traumatic was this?         

If yes, how much did you confide in others?          

4. Within the last 3 years, were you the victim of violence (other than sexual)?  If yes, how traumatic was this?             

If yes, how much did you confide in others?            

5. Within the last 3 years, were you extremely ill or injured?  If yes, how traumatic was this?             

If yes, how much did you confide in others?          

6. Within the last 3 years, has there been a major change in the kind of work you do (e.g., a new job, promotion, demotion, lateral transfer)?

If yes, how traumatic was this?         

If yes, how much did you confide in others?          

7. Within the last 3 years, did you experience any other major upheaval that you think may have shaped your life or personality significantly?

If yes, what was the event?                                                                                If yes, how traumatic was this?             

If yes, how much did you confide in others?