Determinants of Staying Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic–Model Inventory

Abstract

The Determinants of Staying Home During the COVID-19 pandemic—Model Inventory (Matsunaga et al., 2023) was developed to systematically investigate the social cognitive determinants influencing an individual’s adherence to preventive behaviors, specifically staying at home during the global COVID-19 pandemic. The instrument is grounded in the established Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which includes constructs such as attitude toward the behavior, injunctive norms, perceived behavioral control, and intention to adhere to public health guidelines.

Furthermore, the model expands beyond the core TPB framework by integrating critical psychological factors relevant to crisis response, including moral norms and risk perception. Risk perception is comprehensively measured by assessing the cognitive evaluation of infection risk, the frequency with which individuals received COVID-19 information across various media (e.g., news, social media, face-to-face communication), and fear of infection. The inventory consists primarily of eighteen newly developed items adapted from established literature on risk perception and moral obligation.

The measure employs 5-point Likert-type scales for most items, complemented by a single 7-point scale question used to quantify the actual weekly frequency of staying at home (the behavioral outcome). To ensure robust cross-cultural applicability, the instrument underwent rigorous translation and back-translation procedures across four languages—English, Portuguese, Mandarin Chinese, and Japanese—following the guidelines set forth by the International Test Commission (2017). The scale was validated across diverse adult populations in the US, Japan, Brazil, and Taiwan, demonstrating acceptable reliability and providing evidence for measurement invariance across these cultures.

Keywords

Attitude, Behavior, Cognitive Risk Evaluation, Fear, Frequency of COVID-19 Information, Health Communication, Injunctive Norm, Intention, Moral Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, Risk Perception, Theory of Planned Behavior, Social Cognitive Determinants, Health Attitudes, Morality, Social Cognition, Risk Assessment, Behavioral Intention, Health Behavior Measures, COVID-19, Preventive Health Behavior.

Authors

Matsunaga, Lucas Heiki, Aoki, Toshiaki, Faiad, Cristiane, Aldrich, Daniel P., Tseng, Po-Hsing, Aida, Jun.

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the Determinants of Staying Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic—Model Inventory is to provide a standardized, cross-culturally validated tool for assessing the psychological and social drivers that motivate individuals to comply with stay-at-home recommendations during a global health crisis.

Specifically, the instrument aims to test a comprehensive model based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, augmented by constructs of moral obligation and risk assessment, thereby offering insights into effective public health communication and policy development during pandemics.

Construct

The scale measures a multi-faceted theoretical construct encompassing the psychological determinants of pandemic-related protective behavior. This construct is organized into three major domains:

• Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) Components: This includes Attitude toward staying home, Injunctive Norms (social pressure), Perceived Behavioral Control (self-efficacy regarding the behavior), and Intention to stay home.
• Moral Norm: This assesses the internal sense of moral obligation and guilt associated with non-compliance with public health measures.
• Risk Perception: This domain captures how individuals evaluate the threat, including Cognitive Risk Evaluation, Fear of infection, and the influence of Frequency of COVID-19 Information received via various channels.

The final construct measured is the observed Behavior: the actual frequency (days per week) the participant stayed home due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Validity

Specific detailed validity data (such as criterion or convergent validity indices) were not explicitly provided in the source abstract. However, the use of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and the strong model fit indices reported (see Factor Analysis) provide initial evidence for the instrument’s construct validity, suggesting that the observed data structure aligns well with the proposed theoretical model.

Reliability

The instrument demonstrated generally acceptable to good internal consistency across its constructs. The internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, which ranged from .69 to .87. This range indicates that the items within the respective subscales reliably measure the intended underlying concepts.

Factor Analysis

The overall theoretical model fit was assessed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results indicated an adequate fit to the data, supporting the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. Key indices reported were: χ² = 77.195 (p < .00), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .981, Normed Fit Index (NFI) = .977, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .948, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .064 (95% CI: [.051, .078]). These values generally exceed conventional thresholds for good model fit (e.g., CFI > .95, RMSEA < .08).

Furthermore, measurement invariance was rigorously tested using multigroup analysis across the four distinct national samples (US, Japan, Brazil, and Taiwan). While full invariance was not achieved due to the non-invariance of specific regression weights, a partially constrained model was successfully established. This partially constrained model showed a superior fit compared to a totally constrained model and exhibited minimal differences when contrasted with an unconstrained model (CMIN difference = 16.546, df = 12, p < .167). The minimal changes in fit indices (ΔCFI = .001, ΔTLI = .012, ΔRMSEA = .004) further support the conclusion that the model is largely comparable across cultures, allowing for meaningful cross-cultural comparisons of the latent means.

Instrument

Test Type: Original Inventory/Questionnaire

Format: Items are primarily rated using 5-point Likert-type response options, with one behavioral item utilizing a 7-point Likert scale.

Language Available: Chinese (Mandarin), English, Japanese, Portuguese.

Population Group: Human (Male and Female).

Age Group: Adulthood (18 years and older), including Young Adulthood (18-29 yrs) and Thirties (30-39 yrs).

Population Details: Respondents were adults located in four distinct countries: the United States, Japan, Taiwan, and Brazil. Participants’ demographic data (gender, age, education, working conditions, and COVID-19 status) were also collected.

Test Methodology: The development and validation utilized advanced psychometric techniques, including Test Reliability assessment, Internal Consistency analysis, Measurement Invariance testing, Measurement Model construction, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).

Keywords

COVID-19 Pandemic, Health Behavior, Cross-Cultural Research, Psychometrics, Social Norms, Risk Perception, Intentions, Measurement Invariance, Structural Equation Modeling, Public Health.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: No data is Available

Affiliation Email addresses:

• Matsunaga, Lucas Heiki: Tohoku University Department of International Environment and Resources Policies, [email protected]
• Aoki, Toshiaki: Tohoku University Department of International Environment and Resources Policies
• Faiad, Cristiane: University of Brasilia Department of Clinical Psychology
• Aldrich, Daniel P.: Northeastern University Security and Resilience Studies
• Tseng, Po-Hsing: National Taiwan Ocean University Department of Shipping and Transportation Management
• Aida, Jun: Tokyo Medical and Dental University Medical and Dental Sciences

Correspondence Address: Matsunaga, Lucas Heiki: Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, [email protected]

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was developed in 2023. Permission to use the instrument can be obtained by contacting the publisher or corresponding author. There is no fee associated with the use of this inventory.

References

Matsunaga, L. H., Aoki, T., Faiad, C., Aldrich, D. P., Tseng, P.-H., & Aida, J. (2023). Why people stayed home during the COVID-19 pandemic: Implications for health communication across four countries. Journal of Health Communication, 28(4), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2023.2193149

Dryhurst, S., van der Bles, A. M., Spiegelhalter, D., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Risk perceptions and science engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Risk Research, 23(7-8), 987–999.

Chan, D. K., & Bishop, G. D. (2013). Moral obligation, self-efficacy, and the intention to perform health behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(11), 2207–2219.

Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative influences on altruism. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221–279). Academic Press.

Tonglet, M., Phillips, P. S., & Read, A. D. (2004). Using the theory of planned behaviour to explain recycling behaviour: A case study from Nottingham. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 41(3), 191–214.

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.

International Test Commission. (2017). ITC Guidelines for Translating and Adapting Tests.

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Items of the Determinants of Staying Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic–Model Inventory

This measure includes 19 items designed to capture various facets of behavioral motivation related to pandemic adherence. The primary constructs measured are the components of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Injunctive Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, Intention), Moral Norm, and Risk Perception (Cognitive Risk Evaluation, Frequency of COVID-19 Information, Fear), alongside the actual Behavior. Most items utilize 5-point Likert-type response options, while the final behavioral question uses a 7-point scale. Specific item details are available in the source reference: 2023-60480-001, Table 1, Page 221.

The theory of Planned Behavior

Attitude
Staying at home is good for me
Staying at home is desirable

Injunctive Norm
People tell me to stay at home
It is expected of me to stay at home

Perceived Behavioral Control
I am confident that I can stay at home
It is easy for me to stay at home

Intention
I intended to stay at home
I made an effort to stay at home

Moral Norm
I would feel guilty if I didn’t stay at home
I believe that I have a moral obligation to stay at home
Not staying at home goes against my moral principles
I made an effort to stay at home

Risk Perception

Cognitive Risk Evaluation
About being affected by catching the coronavirus in the near future. I think I will be directly affected by it
About being affected by catching the coronavirus in the near future. I think I will be seriously affected by it

Frequency of COVID-19 Information
Frequency of COVID-19 information on the T.V., radio, and newspapers
Frequency of COVID-19 information on social media
Frequency of COVID-19 information in face-to-face communication

Fear
Getting sick with the coronavirus can be worry

Behavior
In the midst of the coronavirus pandemic, how often do you stay at home, weekly, due to this Pandemic, except to buy daily necessities

Note. Items are rated using Likert type scales of 5 points. In addition, one question with a 7-point scale verifies the number of days that participants stay at home weekly.