Digital Transformation Stress Scale (DTSS)

Abstract

The psychometric instrument, the Digital Transformation Stress Scale (DTSS), is a concise, self-report tool designed to specifically quantify stress experienced by employees resulting from organizational Digital Transformation (DT). This stress is rooted in the implementation and management of new Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools, often manifesting as issues related to **time pressure**, heavy **workload**, and high expectations for efficiency. The DTSS captures the emotional responses of employees to this pervasive organizational change.

The scale’s development began with a pool of 20 items, drawn primarily from established instruments like the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983) and Perceived Stress at Work (Chirkowska-Smolak, 2016). The conceptualization of the DTSS was grounded in prominent theoretical frameworks, specifically the Stress Appraisal Theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and the Conservation of Resources (CoR) Theory (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Following expert review, the item pool was refined down to six final items. Psychometric properties were rigorously assessed across two studies using employee samples. Both **exploratory factor analysis** (EFA) and **confirmatory factor analysis** (CFA) supported a robust, six-item **unidimensional structure**, demonstrating high reliability and strong validity evidence.

Keywords

Conservation of Resources Theory, Digital Transformation, Divergent Validity, Employees, Information and Communication Technologies, Items Difficulty and Discrimination, Perceived Stress, Stress Appraisal Theory, Psychometric.

Authors

Makowska-Tłomak, Ewa; Bedyńska, Sylwia; Skorupska, Kinga; Nielek, Radosław; Kornacka, Monika; Kopeć, Wiesław.

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Purpose

The primary **purpose** of the DTSS is to provide a brief, efficient self-report measure of stress specifically attributable to the processes of Digital Transformation within the workplace. The scale is designed to isolate and quantify the stress caused by the style and manner of new **Information and Communication Technology (ICT)** tools’ implementation and subsequent management.

It specifically targets stress related to factors such as increased **time pressure**, elevated **workload**, and the institutional expectations of heightened efficiency that accompany large-scale technological shifts.

Construct

The DTSS measures **Digital Transformation Stress (DTS)**, which is conceptualized as the negative emotional and psychological response experienced by employees when coping with technological changes and the subsequent demands they impose on professional duties. This stress is distinct from general workplace stress.

The construct is theoretically underpinned by established models of psychological strain, including the Stress Appraisal Theory, which focuses on the individual’s evaluation of their capacity to meet demands, and the Conservation of Resources Theory (CoR), which addresses the threat of resource loss during periods of major organizational change, such as DT implementation.

Validity

Regarding **Convergent and Criterion Validity**, a moderate and positive correlation (Pearson’s r = .45, p < .001) was observed between the DTSS scores and measures of general workplace stress. Indicators of general stress and DTS shared a moderate percentage of common variance (R2 = .20), confirming that **Digital Transformation Stress** is a distinct and separable construct from generic job stress, yet related to the broader experience of strain at work.

Evidence for **Divergent Validity** was provided by multiple findings. DTS levels were significantly higher in employees working in organizations actively implementing IT solutions compared to those in organizations without ongoing implementation. A significant difference in DTS was also noted between respondents who reported that the **COVID-19 pandemic** impacted their professional lives and those who did not. Crucially, the DTSS demonstrated no significant correlation with the self-assessment of ICT skills, reinforcing that the scale measures the stress of the transformation process rather than mere technical ability.

Reliability

The scale exhibited high internal consistency across both phases of psychometric evaluation. For the initial psychometric properties study, the calculated **Cronbach’s Alpha** was α = .91. Similarly, the advanced psychometric properties study yielded a high internal consistency value of α = .90. These results confirm the scale’s excellent reliability.

It was noted that reliability was particularly high for individuals reporting the highest levels of Digital Transformation Stress (DTS), indicating precise measurement in the clinically relevant range, although measurement precision decreased for individuals reporting very low DTS levels.

Factor Analysis

The **Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)** strongly supported the predicted structure, extracting a single factor that accounted for over 68% of the total variance across the six items. All item factor loadings were reported as high, confirming the scale’s intended **unidimensional structure**.

The initial **Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)** model showed a poor fit to the data. However, the model fit was significantly improved by incorporating a covariance path between Item 5 and Item 6, which share conceptual similarity regarding feeling overwhelmed or incapable of coping with new technological expectations. This modified model demonstrated a good fit, with all factor loadings significantly contributing to the single factor. The measured covariance between item 5 and item 6 was .48.

Analysis of **Items Difficulty and Discrimination** indicated that all items exhibited similar discrimination parameters. The scale provided precise measurement for individuals with moderate to high DTS levels but was relatively imprecise for individuals with low DTS levels. Item characteristic curves showed a consistent pattern across all items.

Instrument

Test Type: Original

Format: Items are rated on a five-point scale (1 = Never; 5 = Very often).

Language Available: English; Polish

Population Group: Human; Male; Female

Age Group: Adulthood (18 yrs & older); Young Adulthood (18-29 yrs); Thirties (30-39 yrs); Middle Age (40-64 yrs); Aged (65 yrs & older)

Population Details: Age Range: 20-69; Respondents: Professionally Active Individuals

Test Methodology: **Test Validity**, **Convergent Validity**, **Criterion Validity**, **Test Reliability**, **Internal Consistency**, **Factor Analysis**, **Confirmatory Factor Analysis**, **Exploratory Factor Analysis**, **Principal Component Analysis**, **Item Response Theory**, **Structural Equation Modeling**.

Keywords

Conservation of Resources Theory, Digital Transformation, Divergent Validity, Employees, Information and Communication Technologies, Items Difficulty and Discrimination, Perceived Stress, Stress Appraisal Theory, Psychometrics, Workplace Stress.

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Authors

Makowska-Tłomak, Ewa
Author ORCID Identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6010-4210
Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected]; [email protected] (Correspondence)
Affiliation: Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities

Bedyńska, Sylwia
Author ORCID Identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8255-1946
Affiliation Email addresses: No data is Available
Affiliation: Center for Research on Social Relations, Institute of Psychology SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities

**Other Authors and Affiliations:**
Skorupska, Kinga (Polish Japanese Academy of Information Technology); Nielek, Radosław (Polish Japanese Academy of Information Technology); Kornacka, Monika (Emotion Cognition Lab, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities); Kopeć, Wiesław (Polish Japanese Academy of Information Technology).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions: May use for Research/Teaching
Commercial Use: No
Fee: No
Test Year: 2023
Web Site for Permissions: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en (Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License)

Reference’s

• Makowska-Tłomak, E., Bedyńska, S., Skorupska, K., Nielek, R., Kornacka, M., & Kopeć, W. (2023). Measuring digital transformation stress at the workplace–Development and validation of the Digital Transformation Stress Scale. PLoS ONE, 18(10), Article e0287223. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287223

• Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396.

• Chirkowska-Smolak, T. (2016). Perceived Stress at Work. In: J. Strelau, M. Kaczmarek (Eds.), Stress and coping in the workplace. Polish Scientific Publishers PWN (in Polish).

• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing Company.

• Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J. P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources theory of stress, burnout, and job attitudes: New frontiers and perspectives. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103–128.

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Items of the Digital Transformation Stress Scale (DTSS)

This measure consists of 6 items. Respondents are asked to indicate on a five-point scale (1 = Never; 5 = Very often) the frequency of perceived stressful situations concerning the ICT implementation which they experienced during the last four weeks. The general indicator of digital transformation stress is prepared by averaging the answers of the participants.