Empathizing-Systemizing Test

Abstract

The Empathizing-Systemizing Test (E-S Test) is a comprehensive 120-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure two orthogonal dimensions of human cognition and personality: Empathizing (E) and Systemizing (S). Developed by Simon Baron-Cohen and colleagues, this instrument combines the previously published Empathy Quotient (EQ) and the Systemizing Quotient (SQ) into a single battery. The primary application of the E-S Test is to quantify individual differences in these traits, particularly in the context of the E-S Theory, which posits that these dimensions are crucial for understanding conditions such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Keywords

Empathizing Quotient, Systemizing Quotient, EQ-SQ Test, Empathy, Systemizing, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Cognitive Style, Sex Differences, Simon Baron-Cohen

Authors

Simon Baron-Cohen, Sally Wheelwright, Jennifer Richler, Deepthi Bisarya, Nitya Gurunathan, A. Wakabayashi, N. Goldenfeld, J. Delaney, D. Fine, R. Smith, L. Weil

Purpose

The core purpose of the Empathizing-Systemizing Test is to provide a detailed, quantitative measure of an individual’s propensity toward two fundamental cognitive styles: the ability to empathize and the drive to systemize. This instrument allows researchers to test the central tenets of the Empathizing-Systemizing Theory, which categorizes individuals into different “brain types” (Type E, Type S, and Type B, or balanced) based on their relative scores on the two quotients.

Specifically, the test is used to investigate typical sex differences, where females tend to score higher on Empathizing Quotient (EQ) and males tend to score higher on Systemizing Quotient (SQ). It is also a critical diagnostic and research tool for studying clinical populations, particularly those on the autism spectrum, who are hypothesized to exhibit an extreme Type S profile (high systemizing, low empathizing).

Construct

The E-S Test measures two distinct psychological constructs: Empathizing and Systemizing. Empathizing is defined as the drive to identify another person’s emotions and thoughts, and to respond to these with an appropriate emotion. It involves both cognitive empathy (theory of mind) and affective empathy (emotional resonance). Items measuring EQ typically relate to social intuition, emotional understanding, and interpersonal sensitivity.

Systemizing is defined as the drive to analyze, explore, and construct rule-based systems. A systemizer seeks to understand the rules that govern a system (whether mechanical, abstract, natural, or mathematical) in order to predict how that system will behave. Items measuring SQ relate to attention to detail, interest in patterns, technical subjects (like mechanics or computers), and an affinity for predictable structures.

Validity

The construct validity of the EQ and SQ components has been extensively demonstrated through numerous studies. Criterion validity is supported by consistent findings showing predicted group differences: adults diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder typically score significantly lower on the EQ and higher on the SQ compared to neurotypical controls. Furthermore, the scales show discriminant validity, confirming that Empathizing and Systemizing are generally independent constructs, though they may correlate weakly in some populations.

Reliability

Both the original EQ (60 items) and SQ (75 items) demonstrate high internal consistency. Studies typically report Cronbach’s alpha values for the full scales ranging between .80 and .90, indicating strong reliability for both the Empathizing Quotient and the Systemizing Quotient components within the combined E-S Test. Test-retest reliability is also generally high, confirming that these cognitive dispositions are stable personality traits over time.

Factor Analysis

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the E-S Test structure consistently support a two-factor model, confirming the independence of the Empathizing and Systemizing dimensions. While some short forms (e.g., the 40-item versions) have been developed and analyzed (Wakabayashi et al., 2006), the full 120-item version maintains robust evidence for two distinct, primary factors corresponding precisely to E and S. The factor loadings confirm that items intended to measure social understanding cluster together, separate from items relating to mechanical or systematic interests.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Psychometric scale

Format: 120 items, using a 4-point Likert scale response format: 1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Agree, 4-Strongly agree.

Language Available: English (Original), with translations available in numerous languages (e.g., Japanese, Dutch, German) for related short forms.

Population Group: Clinical and general population samples.

Age Group: Adults (typically 16 years and older).

Population Details: Primarily used in studies involving neurotypical adults, adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder, and high-functioning autism populations.

Test Methodology: Respondents indicate their level of agreement with each statement. Scores are calculated separately for the EQ and SQ components, allowing for the determination of an individual’s cognitive profile (E > S, S > E, or E ≈ S).

Keywords

Psychology, Personality Assessment, Empathy Quotient (EQ), Systemizing Quotient (SQ), Likert scale, Cognitive Profile, Psychometrics, Theory of Mind, Self-Assessment

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content; ORCID for Simon Baron-Cohen is typically 0000-0002-0435-6490.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source content; primary affiliation is typically the Autism Research Centre, University of Cambridge.

Correspondence Address: Not provided in source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The core components of the test (EQ and SQ) were introduced in 2003 and 2004. Researchers generally permit non-commercial academic use of these scales, often requiring citation of the original source materials. The combined 120-item instrument is frequently available online for personal use or academic screening. The instrument can be found on line at: http://personality-testing.info/tests/EQSQ.php

Reference’s

• Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. In U. Frith & E. Hill (Eds.), Autism: Mind and brain (pp. 161–186). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient (EQ): An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome and high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–175.
• Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright (2004). “The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation of Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism, and Normal Sex Differences”. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 34(2), 162-175.
• Simon Baron-Cohen (2003). “The Essential Difference”. New York: Basic Books.
• Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Goldenfeld, N., Delaney, J., Fine, D., Smith, R & Weil, L. (2006). Development of short forms of the Empathy Quotient and Systemizing Quotient, Personality and Individual Differences, 41(5), 929-940.

Items of the Empathizing-Systemizing Test

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. I often make resolutions, but find it hard to stick to them.
2. When I travel, I like to learn specific details about the culture of the place I am visiting.
3. When I have a dream, I find it difficult to remember precise details about the dream the next day.
4. I can tell if someone is masking their true emotion.
5. After meeting someone just once or twice, I find it difficult to remember precisely what they look like.
6. I often forget the precise details of conversations I’ve had.
7. When I look at a painting, I do not usually think about the technique involved in making it.
8. When I was a child, I enjoyed cutting up worms to see what would happen.
9. I find it difficult to explain to others things that I understand easily, when they don’t understand it first time.
10. I am fascinated by how machines work.
11. Seeing people cry doesn’t really upset me.
12. I try to solve my own problems rather than discussing them with others.
13. I find it easy to put myself in somebody else’s shoes.
14. When I talk to people, I tend to talk about their experiences rather than my own.
15. When I hear the weather forecast, I am not very interested in the meteorological patterns.
16. In a conversation, I tend to focus on my own thoughts rather than on what my listener might be thinking.
17. People often tell me that I am very unpredictable.
18. If I were buying a stereo, I would want to know about its precise technical features.
19. I often wonder what it would be like to be someone else.
20. When I read something, I always notice whether it is grammatically correct.
21. Other people tell me I am good at understanding how they are feeling and what they are thinking.
22. I prefer practical jokes to verbal humour.
23. Friends usually talk to me about their problems as they say that I am very understanding.
24. I make it a point of listening to the news each morning.
25. People often tell me that I went too far in driving my point home in a discussion.
26. I can easily work out what another person might want to talk about.
27. I can sense if I am intruding, even if the other person doesn’t tell me.
28. I am able to make decisions without being influenced by people’s feelings.
29. If I see a stranger in a group, I think that it is up to them to make an effort to join in.
30. I do not care to know the names of the plants I see.
31. I don’t consciously work out the rules of social situations.
32. When an election is being held, I am not interested in the results for each constituency.
33. When I learn about historical events, I do not focus on exact dates.
34. When I’m in a plane, I do not think about the aerodynamics.
35. When I cook, I do not think about exactly how different methods and ingredients contribute to the final product.
36. I would never break a law, no matter how minor.
37. When I look at a piece of furniture, I do not notice the details of how it was constructed.
38. I enjoy being the centre of attention at any social gathering.
39. I get upset if I see people suffering on news programmes.
40. When I’m in a restaurant, I often have a hard time deciding what to order.
41. I dream most nights.
42. I find it difficult to do two things at once.
43. I rarely read articles or webpages about new technology.
44. Before making a decision I always weigh up the pros and cons.
45. If I were buying a computer, I would want to know exact details about its hard drive capacity and processor speed.
46. The idea of engaging in “risk-taking” activities appeals to me.
47. People sometimes tell me that I have gone too far with teasing.
48. When I listen to a piece of music, I always notice the way it’s structured.
49. It doesn’t bother me too much if I am late meeting a friend.
50. In maths, I am intrigued by the rules and patterns governing numbers.
51. When I am walking in the country, I am curious about how the various kinds of trees differ.
52. I am very blunt, which some people take to be rudeness, even though this is unintentional.
53. If anyone asked me if I liked their haircut, I would reply truthfully, even if I didn’t like it.
54. It upsets me to see an animal in pain.
55. When I read the newspaper, I am drawn to tables of information, such as football league scores or stock market indices.
56. When I am relating a story, I often leave out details and just give the gist of what happened.
57. I can usually appreciate the other person’s viewpoint, even if I don’t agree with it.
58. When I watch a film, I prefer to be with a group of friends, rather than alone.
59. If there was a problem with the electrical wiring in my home, I’d be able to fix it myself.
60. I would be too nervous to go on a big rollercoaster.
61. I am interested in knowing the path a river takes from its source to the sea.
62. I am bad about keeping in touch with old friends.
63. When I learn a language, I become intrigued by its grammatical rules.
64. I often start new hobbies but quickly become bored with them and move on to something else.
65. I am good at predicting how someone will feel.
66. I can tune into how someone else feels rapidly and intuitively.
67. I often find it difficult to judge if something is rude or polite.
68. Friendships and relationships are just too difficult, so I tend not to bother with them.
69. If I were buying a car, I would want to obtain specific information about its engine capacity.
70. I can easily visualize how the motorways in my region link up.
71. I can easily tell if someone else wants to enter a conversation.
72. I enjoy having discussions about politics.
73. I find it hard to know what to do in a social situation.
74. I can’t always see why someone should have felt offended by a remark.
75. When I look at a building, I am curious about the precise way it was constructed.
76. If I were buying a camera, I would not look carefully into the quality of the lens.
77. When travelling by train, I often wonder exactly how the rail networks are coordinated.
78. I find it difficult to learn my way around a new city.
79. I do not enjoy games that involve a high degree of strategy.
80. I don’t like to take risks.
81. I like to be very organized in day to day life and often make lists of the chores I have to do.
82. I find it difficult to understand instruction manuals for putting appliances together.
83. I can’t relax until I have done everything I had planned to do that day.
84. When I buy a new appliance, I do not read the instruction manual very thoroughly.
85. I am good at predicting what someone will do.
86. I donated to find social situations confusing.
87. I like to do things on the spur of the moment.
88. I try to avoid doing household chores if I can.
89. I am at my best first thing in the morning.
90. I find it difficult to read and understand maps.
91. I do not read legal documents very carefully.
92. I prefer animals to humans.
93. When I look at an animal, I like to know the precise species it belongs to.
94. I tend to get emotionally involved with a friend’s problems.
95. I live life for today rather than the future.
96. I find it easy to carry on a conversation with someone I’ve just met.
97. I usually stay emotionally detached when watching a film.
98. When I look at a mountain, I think about how precisely it was formed.
99. I find it difficult to understand information the bank sends me on different investment and saving systems.
100. I am curious about life on other planets.
101. I tend to have very strong opinions about morality.
102. When I lend someone money, I expect them to pay me back exactly what they owe me.
103. I am not interested in understanding how wireless communication works.
104. I can pick up quickly if someone says one thing but means another.
105. It is hard for me to see why some things upset people so much.
106. I prefer to read non-fiction than fiction.
107. I do not tend to watch science documentaries on television or read articles about science and nature.
108. I try to keep up with the current trends and fashions.
109. I really enjoy caring for other people.
110. I am quick to spot when someone in a group is feeling awkward or uncomfortable.
111. If I had a collection (e.g. CDs, coins, stamps), it would be highly organized.
112. I enjoy participating in sport.
113. I am interested in learning about different religions.
114. I think that good manners are the most important thing a parent can teach their child.
115. Other people often say that I am insensitive, though I don’t always see why.
116. If I say something that someone else is offended by, I think that that’s their problem, not mine.
117. I am not very meticulous when I carry out D.I.Y.
118. I can easily tell if someone else is interested or bored with what I am saying.
119. I adhere to common superstitions.
120. I find it easy to grasp exactly how odds work in betting.