Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory

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Abstract

The Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory was developed by Kanjanakan, Wang, and Kim in 2023. This measure was created to support an integrated research model designed to examine Employee Empowerment by considering the perspectives of both management (the empowering individuals) and employees (the empowered individuals).

A central feature of the model is the introduction of the novel construct, empowerment disparity, which quantifies the perceptual difference in empowerment levels among various employees within the same team. The scale items were adapted from established literature and rigorously translated using conventional translation and back-translation procedures to ensure semantic equivalence. The resulting measure was validated using structural equation modeling (SEM) on a sample comprising managers, employees, and customers in tourist cities across Thailand.

Keywords

Measure of Empowering Behavior, Measure of Psychological Empowerment, Measure of Psychological Contract, Measure of Interaction Quality, Empowerment Disparity, Consumer Attitudes, Employee Characteristics, Empowerment, Management Personnel, Supervisor Employee Interaction, Psychological Contracts, Organizational and Occupational Measures

Authors

Kanjanakan, Pattamol, Wang, Pola Q., Kim, Peter B.

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Purpose

The primary purpose of this measurement model is to systematically quantify the difference in perception concerning empowering behavior. Specifically, it compares how managers perceive their own empowering actions versus how employees perceive those same actions delivered by their managers.

Construct

The inventory measures two primary constructs: Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment.

Empowerment Disparity is defined as the quantifiable difference in the perceived level of empowerment among different employees working within the same organizational team or unit. Employee Empowerment is examined through established sub-dimensions including psychological empowerment and behavioral measures.

Validity

Evidence for the measure’s validity was established through thorough assessments of both convergent validity and discriminant validity. For convergent validity, the analysis confirmed that all factor loadings for the measurement items were statistically significant (p < .01), supporting that the items measured their intended constructs.

Regarding discriminant validity, the analysis demonstrated appropriate differentiation between constructs. All Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values were found to be greater than the squared correlation (R2) for every pair of constructs. Additionally, the Composite Reliability (CR) values consistently surpassed the recommended cut-off threshold of 0.7, offering further statistical support for discriminant validity.

Reliability

Internal consistency, a key measure of reliability, was evaluated using Composite Reliability (CR). The CR values calculated for the various constructs within the model demonstrated high internal consistency, ranging from .83 to .91.

Factor Analysis

To address potential measurement issues, an examination of common method variance (CMV) was conducted using Harman’s single factor test. The results indicated that the total variance extracted by a single factor was 33.52%, which is below the conservative 50% threshold. This finding suggests that common method bias was not a significant concern within the collected data.

Furthermore, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed to assess the fit of the proposed factor structure. The CFA results confirmed a good model fit to the data, evidenced by the following fit indices: χ2 = 893.567, df = 395, p = .000; Root Mean Square of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06; Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.94; and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.93.

Instrument

Test Type: This instrument is an original Inventory/Questionnaire designed for academic research.

Format: Items are presented on paper and require respondents to rate their agreement or perception using a 7-point Likert scale.

Language Available: The measure is available in both English and Thai, following a rigorous translation and back-translation process.

Population Group: The intended population is human, including both males and females, typically drawn from organizational settings.

Age Group: It is designed for adults aged 18 years and older, covering young adults (18-29 years), individuals in their thirties (30-39 years), and those in middle age (40-64 years).

Population Details: The initial validation sample included managers, employees, and customers located in tourist cities throughout Thailand.

Test Methodology: The development and validation involved several advanced analytical methods, including Test Validity analysis (Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity), Test Reliability analysis (Internal Consistency using CR), Factor Analysis (Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)), Measurement Model evaluation, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).

Keywords

Measure of Empowering Behavior, Measure of Psychological Empowerment, Measure of Psychological Contract, Measure of Interaction Quality, Empowerment Disparity, Consumer Attitudes, Employee Characteristics, Empowerment, Management Personnel, Supervisor Employee Interaction, Psychological Contracts, Organizational and Occupational Measures

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Peter B. Kim: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1063-5264

Affiliation Email addresses: Peter B. Kim: [email protected]

Correspondence Address: Peter B. Kim: [email protected]

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Permissions: This instrument may be used freely for academic research and teaching purposes.

Fee: There is no fee associated with the use of this instrument, and it is explicitly noted as not being a commercial product.

Test Year: 2023

Reference’s

Kanjanakan, P., Wang, P. Q., & Kim, P. B. (2023). The empowering, the empowered, and the empowerment disparity: A multilevel analysis of the integrated model of employee empowerment. Tourism Management, 94, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104635

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Items of the Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory

The full instrument consists of 38 items. The original test items are available for review and can be found in the Appendix on pages 9-10 of the source publication. The measure is composed of the following factors and subscales:

  • Measure of Empowering Behavior

  • Measure of Psychological Empowerment, which includes the subscales:

    • Meaning

    • Competence

    • Self-determination

    • Impact

  • Measure of Psychological Contract, which includes the subscales:

    • Attitude

    • Behavior

    • Expertise

Item
1. I allow employees complete freedom in their work.
2. I permit employees to use their own judgment in solving problems.
3. I encourage initiative in my employees.
4. I let employees do their work the way they think best.
5. I assign tasks, then let employees handle them.
6. I turn employees loose on a job and let them go to it.
7. I allow employees a high degree of initiative.
8. I trust employees to exercise good judgment.
Sub-dimensionItem
Meaning1. The work I do is very important to me.
2. My job activities are personally meaningful to me.
3. The work I do is meaningful to me.
Competence1. I am confident about my ability to do my job.
2. I am self-assured about my capabilities to perform my work activities.
3. I have mastered the skills necessary for my job.
Self-determination1. I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job.
2. I can decide on my own how to go about doing my work.
3. I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job.
Impact1. My impact on what happens in my work is large.
2. I have a great deal of control over what happens in my work.
3. I have a significant influence over what happens in my work.
Item
1. I expect to grow in this restaurant.
2. I feel part of a team in this restaurant.
3. I have a reasonable chance of promotion if I work hard.
4. To me working for this restaurant is like being a member of a family.
5. The restaurant develops/rewards employees who work hard and exert themselves.
6. I expect to gain promotion in this restaurant with length of service and effort to achieve goals.
7. I feel this restaurant reciprocates the effort put in by its employees.
8. My career path in the restaurant is clearly mapped out.
9. I am motivated to contribute 100% to this restaurant in return for future employment benefits.
Sub-dimensionItem
Attitude1. I can count on the employees at the restaurant being friendly.
2. The attitude of the restaurant’s employees demonstrates their willingness to help me.
3. The attitude of the restaurant’s employees shows me that they understand my needs.
Behavior1. I can count on the restaurant’s employees taking actions to address my needs.
2. The restaurant’s employees respond quickly to my needs.
3. The behavior of the restaurant’s employees indicates to me that they understand my needs.
Expertise1. I can count on the restaurant’s employees to know their jobs.
2. The restaurant’s employees are able to answer my questions quickly.
3. The employees understand that I rely on their knowledge to meet my needs.

Note. Items are rated using a 7-point Likert scale.

Cite this article

Mohammed looti (2025). Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory. Psychological Scales & Instruments Database. Retrieved from https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/empowerment-disparity-and-employee-empowerment-model-inventory/

Mohammed looti. "Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory." Psychological Scales & Instruments Database, 31 Oct. 2025, https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/empowerment-disparity-and-employee-empowerment-model-inventory/.

Mohammed looti. "Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory." Psychological Scales & Instruments Database, 2025. https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/empowerment-disparity-and-employee-empowerment-model-inventory/.

Mohammed looti (2025) 'Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory', Psychological Scales & Instruments Database. Available at: https://db.arabpsychology.com/scales/empowerment-disparity-and-employee-empowerment-model-inventory/.

[1] Mohammed looti, "Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory," Psychological Scales & Instruments Database, vol. X, no. Y, ص Z-Z, October, 2025.

Mohammed looti. Empowerment Disparity and Employee Empowerment Model Inventory. Psychological Scales & Instruments Database. 2025;vol(issue):pages.

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