Everyday Discrimination Scale

Abstract

The Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS), developed by David R. Williams and colleagues in 1997, is a widely utilized psychometric instrument designed to measure chronic, routine, and low-level experiences of unfair treatment. Unlike measures focusing on major life events of discrimination (e.g., being denied a job or housing), the EDS captures the frequency of subtle, day-to-day interpersonal slights and indignities often encountered by marginalized groups. This scale is crucial for public health research, as these chronic microaggressions are linked to heightened physiological stress and adverse health outcomes.

Keywords

Discrimination, Perceived Discrimination, David R. Williams, Race, Health Disparities, Chronic Stress, Microaggressions, Unfair Treatment, Psychometric Scale

Authors

David R. Williams, Yu Yu, James S. Jackson, Norman B. Anderson, et al.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Everyday Discrimination Scale is to quantify the prevalence and subjective experience of non-major discriminatory events in a person’s daily life. It seeks to capture the cumulative burden of minor, yet frequent, acts of unfairness that may contribute significantly to allostatic load and health disparities. The scale is particularly effective in research settings where the impact of structural inequality is mediated by interpersonal experiences of bias.

A secondary, but critical, purpose is served by the mandatory follow-up question. This question allows researchers to identify the perceived reason for the discriminatory experiences (e.g., Race, Gender, Age, or Sexual Orientation), thereby linking the chronic stress of unfair treatment directly to specific dimensions of social identity.

Construct

The EDS measures the psychological construct of Perceived Discrimination as a chronic social stressor. This construct posits that repeated exposure to subtle acts of discrimination—such as being treated with less courtesy or being subject to insulting behavior—leads to persistent psychological distress. It focuses on the subjective perception of the individual regarding unfair treatment, regardless of whether the discrimination can be objectively verified externally.

The scale assumes that these routine experiences, even if seemingly minor individually, combine to create a significant source of chronic stress that undermines both mental and physical well-being. This perspective places the EDS centrally within the socio-environmental stress paradigm, linking social stratification factors (like race and socioeconomic status) directly to health outcomes via psychological mechanisms.

Validity

The EDS demonstrates strong evidence of construct validity, consistently correlating positively with measures of psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety) and adverse physical health indicators (e.g., hypertension, chronic disease incidence) across diverse populations. Studies, such as those conducted within the South Africa Stress and Health Study (Williams et al., 2008), confirm its cross-cultural applicability and relevance in linking perceived unfair treatment to poor health outcomes.

Further validation studies, including the work by Taylor et al. (2004) on older African American adults, have shown that scores on the EDS are robustly associated with indices of chronic stress and health behaviors, providing crucial evidence of its predictive utility in population health research.

Reliability

The Everyday Discrimination Scale is known for its high internal consistency. Although the reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) varies slightly depending on the specific population and context, it generally exhibits excellent reliability for a self-report measure of this type. The original 9-item scale typically yields alpha coefficients well above the standard acceptable threshold of .70.

The short version of the scale (developed by Sternthal, Slopen, & Williams, 2011, for the Chicago Community Adult Health Study), which uses only 5 items, also maintains acceptable reliability, reporting an alpha coefficient of .77. This demonstrates that the core construct of everyday discrimination can be reliably measured even with fewer items, making the short version highly useful for large epidemiological studies where scale length is a constraint.

Factor Analysis

While the EDS is typically utilized as a single, unidimensional measure of perceived chronic discrimination, factor analysis generally supports this approach. The items cohere strongly, reflecting a common factor of routine unfair interpersonal treatment. However, some exploratory analyses in specific populations or contexts have occasionally suggested potential sub-factors, such as separating active avoidance (e.g., people acting afraid) from verbal slights (e.g., insults or disrespect).

The strength of the scale lies in its ability to aggregate these low-level stressors into a single, highly reliable index of discriminatory burden, which is the intended outcome of the original psychometric design.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report Psychometric Scale

Format: The original scale consists of 9 Likert-type items measuring frequency, followed by an open-ended/checkbox question regarding the perceived reason for the unfair treatment.

Language Available: English (Original), widely translated and used globally (e.g., Spanish, various African languages for the South Africa Stress and Health Study).

Population Group: Diverse populations, particularly those subject to systemic marginalization or discrimination based on race, gender, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status.

Age Group: Adolescents (adapted versions) and Adults (primary use).

Population Details: Originally validated in studies focusing on racial disparities in the US, but successfully applied in broader community samples, including the Chicago Community Adult Health Study (CCAHS) and the South Africa Stress and Health (SASH) Study.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate the frequency of each discriminatory event using a 6-point scale ranging from “Never” to “Almost every day.” Scores are typically summed or averaged to create a continuous measure of perceived discrimination frequency.

Keywords

Everyday Discrimination, David R. Williams, Chronic Stress, Racial Disparities, Health Psychology, Perceived Unfairness, Scale Development, Self-Report

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source material.

Correspondence Address: David R. Williams, Harvard University, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences (Affiliation at time of publication: University of Michigan).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale is generally considered to be in the public domain for non-commercial research use, though researchers are strongly encouraged to contact the primary author, David R. Williams, for the most current version and specific usage guidelines. The original scale was published in 1997. The original PDF resource detailing the scale and related measures can be downloaded here: http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/davidrwilliams/files/measuring_discrimination_resource_feb_2012_0_0.pdf

Reference’s

• Krieger N.‚ Smith K.‚ Naishadham D.‚ Hartman C.‚ Barbeau E.M. (2005). “Experiences of discrimination: validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health.” Social Science & Medicine.; 61(7):1576-1596.
• Sternthal‚ M.‚ Slopen‚ N.‚ Williams‚ D.R. (2011). “Racial Disparities in Health: How Much Does Stress Really Matter? Du Bois Review; 8(1): 95-113.
• Taylor T.R.‚ Kamarck T.W.‚ Shiffman S. “Validation of the Detroit area study discrimination scale in a community sample of older African American adults: the Pittsburgh healthy heart project.” International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2004; 11:88–94.
• Williams‚ D.R.‚ González‚ H.M.‚ Williams‚ S.‚ Mohammed‚ S.A.‚ Moomal‚ H‚ Stein‚ D.J. (2008). “Perceived Discrimination‚ Race and Health in South Africa: Findings from the South Africa Stress and Health Study.” Social Science and Medicine‚; 67: 441-452.
• Williams‚ D.R.‚ Yu‚ Y.‚ Jackson‚ J.S.‚ and Anderson‚ N.B. (1997). “Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health: Socioeconomic Status‚ Stress‚ and Discrimination.” Journal of Health Psychology; 2(3):335-351.

Items of the Everyday Discrimination Scale

In your day-to-day life‚ how often do any of the following things happen to you?

1. You are treated with less courtesy than other people are.
2. You are treated with less respect than other people are.
3. You receive poorer service than other people at restaurants or stores.
4. People act as if they think you are not smart.
5. People act as if they are afraid of you.
6. People act as if they think you are dishonest.
7. People act as if they’re better than you are.
8. You are called names or insulted.
9. You are threatened or harassed.

Response Categories: Almost every day‚ At least once a week‚ A few times a month‚ A few times a year‚ Less than once a year‚ Never

Follow-up Question (Asked only of those answering “A few times a year” or more frequently to at least one question.): What do you think is the main reason for these experiences? (CHECK MORE THAN ONE IF VOLUNTEERED).

Recommended Options for Follow-up:

1. Your Ancestry or National Origins
2. Your Gender
3. Your Race
4. Your Age
5. Your Religion
6. Your Height
7. Your Weight
8. Some other Aspect of Your Physical Appearance
9. Your Sexual Orientation
10. Your Education or Income Level

Other Possible Categories to Consider:

• A physical disability
• Your shade of skin color (NSAL)
• Your tribe (SASH)
• Other (SPECIFY) _____________________________