Internal-External Locus of Control Scale

Abstract

The Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E Scale) is a widely utilized psychometric instrument developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1966. Its primary function is to measure an individual’s generalized expectancies regarding the source of reinforcement, distinguishing between internal beliefs (outcomes are due to one’s own efforts, abilities, or characteristics) and external beliefs (outcomes are due to luck, fate, chance, or powerful others). The final version of the scale consists of 29 items, including 23 scored forced-choice items and six filler items, and it is recognized for its foundational role in the study of personality and social learning theory. Item analysis, factor analysis, and reliability tests have consistently demonstrated the internal consistency and psychometric integrity of this instrument.

Keywords

Locus of Control, Internal-External Control, Rotter I-E Scale, Locus of Control, Generalized Expectancies, Social Learning Theory, Personality Assessment, Psychometrics, Forced-Choice.

Authors

Julian B. Rotter

Purpose

The fundamental purpose of the I-E Scale is to provide a standardized, quantifiable measure of an individual’s tendency toward perceiving control over life events as internal or external. This measurement allows researchers to categorize individuals based on their beliefs about the causal relationship between their actions and subsequent outcomes. The scale was designed to operationalize Rotter’s social learning construct of locus of control, providing insight into how expectancies influence behavior.

The I-E Scale is one of the most frequently used instruments for measuring this construct and has historically been instrumental in the development and validation of numerous subsequent instruments focusing on specific domains of control (e.g., health locus of control). Its robust use across decades confirms its utility as a powerful instrument in psychological research.

Construct

The I-E Scale measures generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This psychological construct, central to Rotter’s theory, describes a continuum ranging from extreme internality to extreme externality. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that positive and negative events are a direct result of their own actions, effort, and skill. Conversely, individuals with an external orientation believe that outcomes are determined by forces outside their personal control, such as fate, luck, chance, or powerful others.

The scale assumes that these generalized expectancies are relatively stable personality characteristics that influence how individuals approach learning, problem-solving, and personal responsibility. The final score reflects the degree of the respondent’s external orientation regarding life outcomes.

Validity

Extensive research supports the validity of the I-E Scale across multiple dimensions. Evidence of construct validity is derived from predicted behavioral differences observed between individuals scoring above and below the scale’s median, as well as significant correlations with established behavioral criteria consistent with control beliefs. For instance, individuals with an internal orientation often demonstrate greater political participation and academic effort.

Discriminant validity is strongly supported by the low correlations observed between I-E scores and measures of intelligence, political liberalness, and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. This finding is critical as it indicates that the scale is measuring the control expectancy construct independently of these other psychological variables, ensuring that responses are not simply driven by intelligence or attempts to appear socially desirable.

Reliability

The reliability of the I-E Scale has been demonstrated through various psychometric analyses, confirming its internal consistency and stability over time. For the primary sample consisting of 200 men and 200 women enrolled in psychology courses, the internal consistency was measured using the KR20 reliability coefficient, which yielded a value of 0.70.

Test-retest reliability measures further indicated acceptable stability, particularly over shorter periods. The coefficient was 0.72 after a one-month interval, though stability decreased somewhat, yielding a coefficient of 0.55 after a two-month interval. Reliability data were also provided for all other diverse samples utilized during validation, including high school students, a national stratified sample, and various groups of prisoners, supporting the scale’s reliable application across different populations.

Factor Analysis

The scale’s theoretical foundation rests on the assumption that locus of control is a single, continuous dimension. The two factor analyses performed during the development and revision stages consistently supported the unidimensionality of the scale. This suggests that the I-E Scale effectively measures a single, overarching generalized expectancy concerning internal versus external control, rather than separating into multiple distinct factors of control belief.

Instrument

Test Type: Psychometric Scale assessing generalized personality expectancies.

Format: Forced-Choice format. The final scale contains 29 total items (23 scored items, each comparing an external belief with an internal one, plus six filler items).

Language Available: English (Original).

Population Group: General population, widely used in academic, clinical, and correctional settings.

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (Samples included 10th, 11th, and 12th graders, and university students).

Population Details: Validation samples included 400 college students (Ohio State University), high school students, a national stratified sample, prisoners at the Colorado Reformatory, elementary psychology students at Kansas State University, and Ohio Federal prisoners.

Test Methodology: Respondents select one of two statements (A or B) for each item. The total score is calculated by summing the number of external beliefs selected. Biserial item correlations of each item with the total score (excluding that item) are presented in the original monograph, along with means and standard deviations for various samples.

Keywords

Rotter, I-E Scale, Psychological Testing, Locus of Control, Construct Validity, Discriminant Validity, KR20, Social Desirability, Personality Trait, Unidimensionality, Reinforcement.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not provided in source material)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not provided in source material)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Information not provided in source material)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was formally introduced and published in 1966 in Psychological Monographs: General and Applied.

Information regarding current permissions and licensing fees must be sought directly from the estate or publisher associated with Julian B. Rotter. Given the foundational nature and age of the instrument, it is commonly used in non-commercial academic research, but formal permission is always recommended for usage.

Reference’s

• Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Mono- graphs: General and Applied 80 (Whole No. 609).

• Bevis, K. A. (2008). Teacher burnout: Locus of control and its correlation to teacher burnout and job satisfaction. EdS dissertation, Marshall University.

• DeAndrade, Y. (2009). The relationship of intentional learning, locus of control, and self-efficacy among online and on-ground college students. DMgt dissertation, Webster University.

• Nufer, S. (2012). The effects of locus of control and leader-member exchange as predictors of stress and burnout in the workplace. PsyD dissertation, Chicago School of Professional Psychology.

• Traub, E. PsyD (2010). The effect of internet usage on social alienation and locus of control. PsyD dissertation, University of the Rockies.

• Zimmerman, M.T. (2010). Examination of locus of control, health locus of control and their key predictors in urban vs. rural populations. EdD dissertation, University of Memphis.

Items of the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. a. Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too much.

   b. The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them.

2. a. Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly due to bad luck.

   b. People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.

3. a. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don’t take enough interest in politics.

   b. There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them.

4. a. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world.

   b. Unfortunately, an individual’s worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries.

5. a. The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense.

   b. Most students don’t realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings.

6. a. Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader.

   b. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities.

7. a. No matter how hard you try some people just don’t like you.

   b. People who can’t get others to like them don’t understand how to get along with others.

8. a. Heredity plays the major role in determining one’s personality.

   b. It is one’s experiences in life which determine what they’re like.

9. a. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen.

   b. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action.

10. a. In the case of the well-prepared student there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair test.

    b. Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying is really useless.

11. a. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to do with it.

    b. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.

12. a. The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions.

    b. This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it.

13. a. When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work.

    b. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow.

14. a. There are certain people who are just no good.

    b. There is some good in everybody.

15. a. In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck.

    b. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin.

16. a. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place first.

    b. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability, luck has little or nothing to do with it.

17. a. As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand nor control.

    b. By taking an active part in political and social affairs, the people can control world events.

18. a. Most people don’t realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings.

    b. There really is no such thing as “luck.”

19. a. One should always be willing to admit mistakes.

    b. It is usually best to cover up one’s mistakes.

20. a. It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you.

    b. How many friends you have depends on how nice a person you are.

21. a. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones.

    b. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three.

22. a. With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption.

    b. It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do in office.

23. a. Sometimes I can’t understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give.

    b. There is a direct connection between how hard I study and the grades I get.

24. a. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do.

    b. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are.

25. a. Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me.

    b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life.

26. a. People are lonely because they don’t try to be friendly.

    b. There’s not much use in trying too hard to please people, if they like you, they like you.

27. a. There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school.

    b. Team sports are an excellent way to build character.

28. a. What happens to me is my own doing.

    b. Sometimes I feel that I don’t have enough control over the direction my life is taking.

29. a. Most of the time I can’t understand why politicians behave the way they do.

    b. In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level.

Scoring Details: A forced-choice format is used. The total score is calculated by adding the number of external beliefs selected (2a, 3b, 4b, 5b, 6a, 7a, 9a, 10b, 11b, 12b, 13b, 15b, 16a, 17a, 18a, 20a, 21a, 22b, 23a, 25a, 26b, 28b, and 29a).