Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) Scale

Abstract

The Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) Scale is a specialized psychological scale developed to quantify contemporary and subtle attitudes that rationalize or minimize the severity of sexual violence. Unlike traditional measures that focus on overt victim blaming, the AMMSA scale captures modern rationalizations prevalent in Western societies, often involving the justification of perpetrator behavior or the attribution of fault to the victim.

Developed by Gerger, Kley, Bohner, and Siebler in 2007, the instrument consists of 30 items administered using a 7-point Likert Scale, ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The scale is available in both German and English. High total scores on the AMMSA are indicative of a stronger acceptance of these modern myths, which are reliably associated with elevated levels of hostile sexism and a greater predisposition toward sexually aggressive behavior.

Keywords

Sexual aggression, Rape myth acceptance, Modern myths, Attitude measurement, Social psychology, Sexual violence, Gender roles, Hostile sexism, Psychometrics, Coercion

Authors

Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., Siebler, F.

Purpose

The primary objective of the AMMSA scale is to provide researchers and clinical practitioners with a nuanced instrument for assessing attitudes related to sexual aggression. Traditional measures of Rape Myth Acceptance often rely on overtly hostile statements that are increasingly rejected by modern populations due to heightened social desirability concerns, resulting in restricted variance and reduced predictive power.

The AMMSA scale addresses this limitation by focusing on subtle, socially acceptable justifications for sexual violence. These modern myths often frame aggression in terms of biological necessity for men, miscommunication in dating scenarios, or the exaggeration of complaints by women. By targeting these contemporary rationalizations, the scale offers a more accurate assessment of underlying hostile attitudes that are predictive of sexually coercive or aggressive behavior.

Construct

The AMMSA scale measures the construct of the Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression. This construct is defined as a system of beliefs that collectively function to minimize the perceived seriousness of sexual violence, validate male sexual entitlement, and displace responsibility onto the victim or external societal factors rather than the individual perpetrator.

The myths encapsulated within the scale cover several thematic domains crucial to modern rationalizations of sexual aggression. These domains include beliefs regarding the interpretation of ambiguous sexual signals, the minimization of female resistance (such as the belief that women “play coy”), the notion of biological inevitability concerning male sexual release, and the assertion that women frequently fabricate accusations of sexual violence for personal advantages, such as gaining custody or attention. Acceptance of this construct is a powerful indicator of underlying negative attitudes toward women and a propensity for sexually coercive behavior.

Validity

The AMMSA scale exhibits robust psychometric properties, demonstrating strong evidence for both construct and criterion validity. Construct validity was established through significant correlations with other related psychological measures. Specifically, AMMSA scores showed positive associations with measures of hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, and scores on traditional scales of rape myth acceptance. This confirms that the AMMSA successfully taps into the broader domain of attitudes that minimize sexual violence and reinforce negative gender stereotypes.

Furthermore, criterion validity is demonstrated by the scale’s ability to predict behavioral outcomes. High AMMSA scores significantly predict self-reported tendencies toward sexual aggression and a reported willingness to engage in sexually coercive behaviors. Crucially, this predictive power remains significant even when controlling for traditional measures of sexism, suggesting that the AMMSA scale captures a unique and modern component of attitudes highly relevant to the prediction of aggressive sexual behavior.

Reliability

The reliability of the AMMSA scale has been thoroughly established, primarily through assessments of internal consistency. In the initial validation studies conducted by Gerger et al. (2007), the scale consistently yielded high Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, typically ranging from .87 to .91. This high internal consistency was observed across various samples, including both student and community populations, and across both the German and English versions of the instrument.

This strong internal consistency confirms that the 30 items within the scale reliably measure the same unitary underlying construct: the acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression. Additionally, the scale has demonstrated strong test-retest reliability over short intervals (e.g., 2 to 4 weeks), indicating that the attitudes measured by the AMMSA are stable over time.

Factor Analysis

The development process for the AMMSA scale involved extensive factor analysis, including both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), aimed at elucidating the internal structure of these modern myths. The original research strongly supported a robust single-factor solution, which represents the general acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression. This finding supports the calculation and interpretation of a total score as the most comprehensive measure provided by the psychological scale.

However, the 30 individual items are frequently grouped into distinct thematic clusters for conceptual clarity, though a total score is generally recommended for statistical analysis. These conceptual subfactors include: Justification of Male Sexual Drive (myths related to biological necessity and uncontrollable urges); Minimization of Female Complaints (myths suggesting women exaggerate claims of harassment or violence); and Misinterpretation of Sexual Signals (myths suggesting female ambiguity or hesitation implies consent or underlying desire). The unitary total score remains the primary measure of the construct.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Psychological Scale

Format: 30 items administered via a 7-point Likert Scale.

Language Available: German, English

Population Group: General adult population and university students, used primarily in social psychology and criminology research.

Age Group: Typically 18 years and older.

Population Details: The scale was initially validated using German and American student samples, suggesting its cross-cultural applicability within Western contexts.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate their level of agreement with each statement on a scale from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). Higher total scores indicate a greater acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression and stronger attitudes toward victim blaming.

Keywords

Psychometrics, Sexual attitudes, Coercion, Gender studies, Victim blaming, Aggressive Behavior, Psychometric instrument, Social desirability bias

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not specified in source content.

Correspondence Address: Not specified in source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The AMMSA scale was developed and validated in 2007. For details regarding usage permissions, licensing, and any associated fees, researchers are advised to consult the corresponding author of the original publication (Gerger, H. et al.) or the academic repository hosting the scale materials.

The original PDF detailing the scale development and items can be downloaded here: http://www.midss.org/sites/default/files/ammsaenglish.pdf

Reference’s

Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., & Siebler, F. (2007). The Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) Scale: Development and validation in German and English. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 422-440.

Items of the Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. When it comes to sexual contacts‚ women expect men to take the lead / Wenn es zu sexuellem Kontakt kommt‚ erwarten Frauen‚ dass der Mann die Führung übernimmt
2. Once a man and a woman have started “making out”‚ a woman’s misgivings against sex will automatically disappear / Wenn ein Mann und eine Frau erst einmal “angefangen” haben‚ verlieren sich die Bedenken der Frau gegen Sex von selbst.
3. A lot of women strongly complain about sexual infringements for no real reason‚ just to appear emancipated / Viele Frauen beschweren sich schon aus nichtigem Anlass lautstark über sexuelle Übergriffe‚ nur um als emanzipiert zu gelten.
4. To get custody for their children‚ women often falsely accuse their ex-husband of a tendency towards sexual violence / Um das Sorgerecht für die Kinder zu bekommen‚ unterstellen Frauen ihrem Ex-Ehemann gerne zu Unrecht einen Hang zu sexueller Gewalt.
5. Interpreting harmless gestures as “sexual harassment” is a popular weapon in the battle of the sexes / Harmlose Gesten als “sexuelle Belästigung” auszulegen ist eine beliebte Waffe im Kampf der Geschlechter.
6. It is a biological necessity for men to release sexual pressure from time to time / Bei Männern ist es biologisch bedingt‚ dass sie von Zeit zu Zeit sexuellen Druck ablassen müssen.
7. After a rape‚ women nowadays receive ample support / Nach einer Vergewaltigung erhalten Frauen heutzutage Unterstützung von allen Seiten.
8. Nowadays‚ a large proportion of rapes is partly caused by the depiction of sexuality in the media as this raises the sex drive of potential perpetrators / Ein Großteil der Vergewaltigungen wird heutzutage durch die Darstellung von Sexualität in den Medien mitverursacht‚ da diese den Sexualtrieb potentieller Täter weckt.
9. If a woman invites a man to her home for a cup of coffee after a night out this means that she wants to have sex / Wenn eine Frau einen Mann nach dem Discobesuch auf eine Tasse Kaffee in ihre Wohnung einlädt‚ dann ist sie auf ein sexuelles Abenteuer aus.
10. As long as they don’t go too far‚ suggestive remarks and allusions simply tell a woman that she is attractive / Solange sie im Rahmen bleiben‚ sagen Anzüglichkeiten und Anspielungen einer Frau einfach nur‚ dass sie attraktiv ist.
11. Any woman who is careless enough to walk through “dark alleys” at night is partly to be blamed if she is raped / Wer als Frau so unvorsichtig ist‚ nachts durch „dunkle Gassen“ zu gehen‚ trägt eine gewisse Mitschuld an der eigenen Vergewaltigung.
12. When a woman starts a relationship with a man‚ she must be aware that the man will assert his right to have sex / Wenn eine Frau mit einem Mann eine Beziehung eingeht‚ muss sie sich darüber im Klaren sein‚ dass der Mann sein Recht auf Sex einfordern wird.
13. Most women prefer to be praised for their looks rather than their intelligence / Die meisten Frauen möchten lieber für ihr Aussehen gelobt werden als für ihre Intelligenz.
14. Because the fascination caused by sex is disproportionately large‚ our society’s sensitivity to crimes in this area is disproportionate as well / Weil Sex an sich eine unverhältnismäßig große Faszination ausübt‚ ist unsere Gesellschaft für Straftaten in diesem Bereich auch unverhältnismäßig sensibel.
15. Women like to play coy. This does not mean that they do not want sex / Frauen zieren sich gerne. Das bedeutet nicht‚ dass sie keinen Sex wollen.
16. Many women tend to exaggerate the problem of male violence / Viele Frauen neigen dazu‚ das Problem der Männergewalt zu übertreiben.
17. When a man urges his female partner to have sex‚ this cannot be called rape / Wenn ein Mann seine Partnerin zum Sex drängt‚ kann man das nicht Vergewaltigung nennen.
18. When a single woman invites a single man to her flat she signals that she is not averse to ha‎ving sex / Wenn eine alleinstehende Frau einen alleinstehenden Mann in ihre Wohnung einlädt‚ zeigt sie damit‚ dass sie sexuellen Aktivitäten nicht abgeneigt ist.
19. When politicians deal with the topic of rape‚ they do so mainly because this topic is likely to attract the attention of the media / Wenn Politiker/innen sich mit dem Thema Vergewaltigung beschäftigen‚ dann vor allem deshalb‚ weil dieses Thema ihnen die Aufmerksamkeit der Medien garantiert.
20. When defining “marital rape”‚ there is no clear-cut distinction between normal conjugal intercourse and rape / Bei der Definition von “Vergewaltigung in der Ehe” gibt es keine klare Grenze zwischen normalem ehelichen Geschlechtsverkehr und Vergewaltigung.
21. A man’s sexuality functions like a steam boiler – when the pressure gets to high‚ he has to “let off steam” / Die Sexualität des Mannes funktioniert wie ein Dampfkessel – wenn der Druck zu groß wird‚ muss er einfach “Dampf ablassen”.
22. Women often accuse their husbands of marital rape just to retaliate for a failed relationship / Frauen bezichtigen ihre Männer häufig einer Vergewaltigung in der Ehe‚ um sich für eine gescheiterte Beziehung zu rächen.
23. The discussion about sexual harassment on the job has mainly resulted in many a harmless behavior being misinterpreted as harassment / Die Diskussion über sexuelle Belästigung am Arbeitsplatz hat vor allem dazu geführt‚ dass manches harmlose Verhalten jetzt als Belästigung missverstanden wird.
24. In dating situations the general expectation is that the woman “hits the brakes” and the man “pushes ahead” / Beim Kennenlernen entspricht es der allgemeinen Erwartung‚ dass die Frau “bremst” und der Mann “Gas gibt”.
25. Although the victims of armed robbery have to fear for their lives‚ they receive far less psychological support than do rape victims / Obwohl die Opfer bewaffneter Raubüberfälle um ihr Leben fürchten müssen‚ erhalten sie wesentlich weniger psychologische Unterstützung als Vergewaltigungsopfer.
26. Alcohol is often the culprit when a man rapes a woman / Wenn Männer vergewaltigen‚ ist oft der Alkohol schuld.
27. Many women tend to misinterpret a well-meant gesture as a “sexual assault” / Viele Frauen neigen dazu‚ eine nett gemeinte Geste zum “sexuellen Übergriff” hochzuspielen.
28. Nowadays‚ the victims of sexual violence receive sufficient help in the form of women’s shelters‚ therapy offers‚ and support groups / Für die Opfer sexueller Gewalt wird heutzutage durch Frauenhäuser‚ Therapieangebote und Selbsthilfegruppen schon genug getan.
29. Instead of worrying about alleged victims of sexual violence society should rather attend to more urgent problems‚ such as environmental destruction / Anstatt sich um angebliche Opfer sexueller Gewalt zu kümmern‚ sollte sich die Gesellschaft eher dringenderen Problemen widmen‚ wie zum Beispiel Umweltzerstörung.
30. Nowadays‚ men who really sexually assault women are punished justly / Heutzutage werden Männer‚ die Frauen wirklich sexuell belästigen‚ auch gerecht bestraft.