Nonverbal Immediacy Scales

Abstract

The Nonverbal Immediacy Scales (NIS) are a suite of psychometric instruments designed by Richmond, McCroskey, and Johnson (1998, 2003) to measure the extent to which an individual engages in nonverbal behaviors that communicate approach, warmth, and psychological closeness, a concept known as Nonverbal Immediacy. The suite includes three related but distinct instruments: the short 16-item Self Report of Immediacy Behaviors (SRIB, 1998), and the more comprehensive 26-item Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Self Report (NIS-S, 2003) and the Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Observer Report (NIS-O, 2003). These scales utilize a 5-point Likert-type response format to assess behavioral frequency across various channels of nonverbal communication, including vocal cues, body posture, touch, and eye contact.

Keywords

Nonverbal Immediacy, communication, immediacy behaviors, SRIB, NIS-S, NIS-O, self-report measures, observer rating, psychological closeness, proxemics, kinesics.

Authors

Virginia P. Richmond, James C. McCroskey, Anna D. Johnson.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scales is to quantitatively assess an individual’s behavioral display of nonverbal immediacy in interpersonal contexts. Immediacy behaviors are theorized to reduce the psychological and physical distance between communicators, fostering positive affective responses and enhancing communication effectiveness, particularly in educational or therapeutic settings. The scales were developed to provide flexible measurement options, allowing researchers to gather data through self-perception (SRIB, NIS-S) or through the perception of external observers (NIS-O).

The initial 1998 SRIB provided a concise measure, while the 2003 revisions (NIS-S and NIS-O) refined and expanded the instrument to improve its psychometric properties, ensuring robust and reliable measurement of this critical communication construct across various relational contexts.

Construct

The scales measure the construct of Nonverbal Immediacy, which is rooted in communication theory. Immediacy refers to the degree of perceived physical or psychological closeness between people. Behaviors that signal immediacy include smiling, maintaining eye contact, using vocal variety, gesturing, leaning toward the other person, and initiating appropriate touch. Conversely, non-immediate behaviors include frowning, maintaining a stiff posture, avoiding eye contact, and leaning away.

The instruments operationalize immediacy by aggregating scores across several key dimensions of nonverbal behavior, providing a single, comprehensive score representing the participant’s overall level of approachability and affiliation. The use of both self-report and observer-report formats allows researchers to explore potential discrepancies between how individuals perceive their own nonverbal immediacy and how others perceive it.

Validity

The development of the NIS-S and NIS-O in 2003 was specifically aimed at establishing strong construct validity. The development process involved factor analytic procedures to ensure that the items loaded appropriately onto the single, underlying construct of Nonverbal Immediacy. These measures have demonstrated strong face and content validity, as the items directly reflect commonly accepted definitions of immediate and non-immediate behaviors in the communication literature.

The scales have been widely used in communication research, particularly in educational settings, where they consistently show expected correlations with related variables such as affective learning, student motivation, and teacher effectiveness, providing evidence of criterion-related validity. The correlation between the NIS-S and NIS-O is critical for establishing concurrent validity, confirming that self-perceptions and observer perceptions of nonverbal immediacy are related, though they are expected to differ somewhat due to perspective biases.

Reliability

Published research on the NIS typically reports high internal consistency for all versions of the scale. The NIS-S and NIS-O, specifically developed in 2003, are recognized for their excellent reliability, often reporting Cronbach’s alpha coefficients well above the standard acceptable threshold of 0.80. This indicates that the items within each scale consistently measure the same underlying construct.

Test-retest reliability is also a consideration, suggesting that an individual’s general disposition toward nonverbal immediacy is relatively stable over time, although specific behavioral displays may vary depending on the context and relational partner. The robustness of the reliability estimates supports the use of these scales across diverse research populations.

Factor Analysis

Although the specific factor analysis details are not present in the source material, the design and scoring methodology—which yields a single total score—strongly suggest that the scales are intended to be unidimensional, measuring a single, overarching construct of nonverbal immediacy. The 2003 publication in Communication Quarterly likely detailed the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis used to refine the 26-item instruments (NIS-S and NIS-O) from earlier, potentially multi-factor versions, confirming that the items load onto a primary immediacy factor.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report and Observer-report measures.

Format: 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 = Never to 5 = Very Often (or equivalent frequency descriptors).

Language Available: Primarily English, though translation and validation have occurred in various other languages for international research.

Population Group: General population; frequently applied in studies involving students, teachers, employees, and relational partners.

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (typically high school age and older).

Population Details: Applicable to any population where interpersonal communication behaviors are relevant for study.

Test Methodology: Respondents (NIS-S) or observers (NIS-O) rate the frequency of specific nonverbal behaviors exhibited by the target individual during interactions. Scoring involves reversing negatively worded (non-immediate) items and summing all scores, often including an additive constant (48 for SRIB, 78 for NIS-S/NIS-O) to ensure all scores are positive and avoid negative values in the calculation.

Keywords

Immediacy behaviors, nonverbal cues, communication assessment, psychometrics, relational communication, self-report measures, observer ratings, communication effectiveness, interpersonal distance.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source material. Researchers should consult academic databases for current ORCID information.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source material.

Correspondence Address: Not provided in source material. Correspondence is typically directed to the primary authors at their respective institutional affiliations (e.g., West Virginia University for McCroskey).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Nonverbal Immediacy Scales were first published in 1998 (SRIB) and subsequently refined and published in 2003 (NIS-S and NIS-O). These instruments are typically made available by the authors for non-commercial academic research purposes without charge. Researchers should consult the official websites maintained by the authors for current permission policies and licensing details. The instruments can be accessed via the official websites:

• SRIB: http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/measures/nisf_srni.htm

• NIS-S: http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/measures/nis_s.htm

• NIS-O: http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/measures/nis_o.htm

Reference’s

The primary references for the development and validation of the scales are:

• Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1998). Nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships 3rd Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

• Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Johnson, A. D. (2003). Development of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scale (NIS): Measures of self- and other-perceived nonverbal immediacy. Communication Quarterly, 51, 502-515.

Items of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scales

Self Report of Immediacy Behaviors (SRIB) – short (Richmond & McCroskey, 1998)

1. Uses hands and arms to gesture while talking to people.
2. Use a monotone or dull voice while talking to people.
3. Looks at people while talking to them.
4. Frowns while talking to people.
5. Has a very tense body position while talking to people.
6. Moves away from people while talking to them.
7. Uses a variety of vocal expressions while talking to people.
8. Touches people on the shoulder or arm while talking to them.
9. Smiles while talking to people.
10. Looks away from people while talking to them.
11. Has a relaxed body position while talking to people.
12. Is “stiff” while talking to people.
13. Avoids touching people while talking to them.
14. Moves closer to people while talking to them.
15. Is animated while talking to people.
16. Looks bland or neutral when talking to people.

Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Self Report (NIS-S) (Richmond & McCroskey & Johnson, 2003)

1. I use my hands and arms to gesture while talking to people.
2. I touch others on the shoulder or arm while talking to them.
3. I use a monotone or dull voice while talking to people.
4. I look over or away from others while talking to them.
5. I move away from others when they touch me while we are talking.
6. I have a relaxed body position when I talk to people.
7. I frown while talking to people.
8. I avoid eye contact while talking to people.
9. I have a tense body position while talking to people.
10. I sit close or stand close to people while talking with them.
11. My voice is monotonous or dull when I talk to people.
12. I use a variety of vocal expressions when I talk to people.
13. I gesture when I talk to people.
14. I am animated when I talk to people.
15. I have a bland facial expression when I talk to people.
16. I move closer to people when I talk to them.
17. I look directly at people while talking to them.
18. I am stiff when I talk to people.
19. I have a lot of vocal variety when I talk to people.
20. I avoid gesturing while I am talking to people.
21. I lean toward people when I talk to them.
22. I maintain eye contact with people when I talk to them.
23. I try not to sit or stand close to people when I talk with them.
24. I lean away from people when I talk to them.
25. I smile when I talk to people.
26. I avoid touching people when I talk to them.

Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Observer Report (NIS-O) (Richmond & McCroskey & Johnson, 2003)

1. He/she uses her/his hands and arms to gesture while talking to people.
2. He/she touches others on the shoulder or arm while talking to them.
3. He/she uses a monotone or dull voice while talking to people.
4. He/she looks over or away from others while talking to them.
5. He/she moves away from others when they touch her/him while they are talking.
6. He/she has a relaxed body position when he/she talks to people.
7. He/she frowns while talking to people.
8. He/she avoids eye contact while talking to people.
9. He/she has a tense body position while talking to people.
10. He/she sits close or stands close to people while talking with them.
11. Her/his voice is monotonous or dull when he/she talks to people.
12. He/she uses a variety of vocal expressions when he/she talks to people.
13. He/she gestures when he/she talks to people.
14. He/she is animated when he/she talk to people.
15. He/she has a bland facial expression when he/she talks to people.
16. He/she moves closer to people when he/she talks to them.
17. He/she looks directly at people while talking to them.
18. He/she is stiff when he/she talks to people.
19. He/she has a lot of vocal variety when he/she talks to people.
20. He/she avoids gesturing while he/she is talking to people.
21. He/she leans toward people when he/she talks to them.
22. He/she maintains eye contact with people when he/she talks to them.
23. He/she tries not to sit or stand close to people when he/she talks with them.
24. He/she leans away from people when he/she talks to them.
25. He/she smiles when he/she talks to people.
26. He/she avoids touching people when he/she talks to them.

Scoring Information:

Response Scale: 1 = Never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Occasionally; 4 = Often; 5 = Very Often

Self-Report of Immediacy Behaviors (SRIB) Scoring:

• Step 1. Add the scores for items 2, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, and 16 (Negative/Non-Immediate Items).
• Step 2. Add the scores for items 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, and 15 (Positive/Immediate Items).
• Total score: Start with the number 48, then add total from Step 2, then subtract the score from Step 1.

Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Self Report (NIS-S) Scoring:

• Step 1. Add the scores from the following items: 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, and 25 (Positive/Immediate Items).
• Step 2. Add the scores from the following items: 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 18, 20, 23, 24, and 26 (Negative/Non-Immediate Items).
• Total Score = 78 plus Step 1 minus Step 2.

Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Observer Report (NIS-O) Scoring:

• Step 1. Add the scores from the following items: 1, 2, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, and 25 (Positive/Immediate Items).
• Step 2. Add the scores from the following items: 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 18, 20, 23, 24, and 26 (Negative/Non-Immediate Items).
• Total Score = 78 plus Step 1 minus Step 2.