Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children

Abstract

The Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children (NS-LOC) is a widely utilized psychological scale designed to assess the degree to which children perceive reinforcement as contingent upon their own behavior (internal control) versus external forces such as luck, fate, or powerful others (external control). Developed by Stephen Nowicki, Jr. and Bonnie R. Strickland, the scale consists of 40 dichotomous (Yes/No) items suitable for use across a broad range of childhood and adolescent age groups. It serves as a foundational instrument for research exploring the relationship between perceived control and developmental outcomes in youth.

Keywords

Locus of Control, children, psychological assessment, internal control, external control, personality, reinforcement theory, perceived control

Authors

Stephen Nowicki, Jr., Bonnie R. Strickland

Purpose

The primary purpose of the NS-LOC is to provide a reliable and developmentally appropriate measure of Locus of Control (LOC) in young populations. Before its creation, many LOC instruments were geared toward adults or required complex response formats deemed unsuitable for children. Nowicki and Strickland sought to create a simple, easily administered, and objective measure that could distinguish between children who believe they have control over outcomes (internals) and those who believe outcomes are governed by external factors (externals).

The scale is instrumental in educational and clinical settings, helping researchers understand how a child’s perception of control influences academic achievement, resilience, coping mechanisms, and overall adjustment. The structure and language of the 40 items are tailored to be easily understood by children as young as six, ensuring broad applicability across primary and secondary school grades.

Construct

The NS-LOC measures the psychological construct of Locus of Control, a concept derived from Julian Rotter’s social learning theory. This construct refers to an individual’s generalized belief concerning the causes of events in their life. Individuals with an internal locus of control tend to believe that outcomes result from their own efforts, abilities, and actions. Conversely, those with an external locus of control attribute outcomes to outside forces, such as chance, luck, fate, or the control of powerful others.

The scale operationalizes this construct through 40 items that cover various life domains relevant to children, including academic performance, peer relationships, parental interaction, and general life events. The scoring is designed such that a higher score indicates a greater degree of externality, reflecting a belief that the child has little personal influence over the reinforcements they receive.

Validity

The validity of the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children has been extensively studied across numerous samples. The scale exhibits strong face validity, as the items are clearly related to common situations where a child might feel either in control or helpless. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated satisfactory concurrent validity, showing significant correlations with other established measures of LOC, such as the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire (IAR).

Predictive validity evidence suggests that children with a more internal LOC tend to exhibit higher academic achievement, better self-esteem, and more proactive coping strategies compared to their external counterparts. The instrument’s ability to differentiate between various demographic groups, particularly concerning age (with older children generally showing increasing internality) and socioeconomic status, further supports its construct validity.

Reliability

The reliability of the NS-LOC is generally considered acceptable for a screening and research tool. Original studies reported internal consistency coefficients (Kuder-Richardson 20, or KR-20) ranging from approximately 0.55 to 0.75 across different grade levels, indicating moderate homogeneity among the items. The slightly lower internal consistency often reflects the intention of the scale to measure a generalized expectancy across diverse situational contexts (e.g., social, academic, familial), rather than a single, narrow trait.

Test-retest reliability has been consistently strong, with coefficients typically falling in the 0.60s and 0.70s over several weeks, suggesting stability in the child’s perceived Locus of Control orientation over time. This stability makes the NS-LOC a useful tool for longitudinal studies tracking developmental changes in perceived control.

Factor Analysis

Initial development of the NS-LOC aimed for a single, broad factor representing generalized Locus of Control (internal vs. external). While the scale is typically scored as a unidimensional measure, subsequent factor analysis studies have sometimes suggested a more complex, multi-factor structure, particularly when administered to older adolescents or specific clinical populations.

Despite indications of potential sub-factors related to areas like academic control, social control, and general fate/luck, the consensus remains that the total score provides the most robust and psychometrically sound measure for researchers interested in overall internality/externality, especially given the scale’s brevity and intended use as a general screening tool.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report/Dichotomous Response Scale

Format: 40 items requiring a simple Yes/No answer. Scoring yields a single total score reflecting the degree of externality.

Language Available: English (originally), with translations available in numerous languages due to its international use.

Population Group: Children and Adolescents.

Age Group: Typically utilized for children aged 6 to 18 years (Grades 1 through 12). A separate version, the Nowicki–Strickland Personal Reaction Survey, was developed for 7th–12th graders.

Population Details: Designed for use with non-clinical, general population samples, but frequently applied in educational and clinical research settings.

Test Methodology: Can be administered individually or in groups, typically via paper-and-pencil or interview format (the latter often preferred for younger children or those with reading difficulties).

Keywords

Psychological assessment, perceived causality, internal-external control, standardized measure, developmental psychology, personality research

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Not readily available for original authors)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Not publicly available)

Correspondence Address: Emory University, Department of Psychology (Historical Affiliation)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was initially presented in 1971 and formally published in 1973. Due to its age and frequent use in academic literature, the NS-LOC is generally considered to be in the public domain for non-commercial research and educational purposes. Formal permission should be sought from the authors or copyright holders for commercial applications.

The original PDF documentation of the measure can be accessed via the following links:

• http://teachinternalcontrol.com/uploads/LOC_Measures__1_.pdf
• The instrument is also available here: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED058933.pdf

Reference’s

• Nowicki, Stephen, Jr.; Strickland, Bonnie R. A Locus of Control Scale for Children. Paper presented at the 79th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., September 3-7, 1971.
• Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B. R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1, 148-154.
• Nowicki, S., Jr., & Strickland, B.R. (1978). The Nowicki–Strickland Personal Reaction Survey for 7th–12th graders. Atlanta, GA: Emory University, Department of Psychology.

Items of the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. Do you believe that most problems will solve themselves if you just don’t fool with them?
2. Do you believe that you can stop yourself from catching a cold?
3. Are some kids just born lucky?
4. Most of the time do you feel that getting good grades means a great deal to you?
5. Are you often blames for things that just aren’t your fault?
6. Do you believe that if somebody studies hard enough he or she can pass any subject?
7. Do you feel that most of the time it doesn’t pay to try hard because things never turn out right anyway?
8. Do you feel that of things start out well in the morning that it’s going to be a good day no matter what you do?
9. Do you feel that most of the time parents listen to what their children have to say?
10. Do you believe that wishing can make good things happen?
11. When you get punished does it usually seem it’s for no good reason at all?
12. Most of the time do you find it hard to a friend’s (mind) opinion?
13. Do you think that cheering more than luck helps a team to win?
14. Do you feel that it’s nearly impossible to change your parents mind about anything?
15. Do you believe that your parents should allow you to make most of your decisions?
16. Do you feel that when you do something wrong there’s very little you can do to make it right?
17. Do you believe that most kids are just born good at sports?
18. Are most of the other kids your age stronger than you are?
19. Do you feel that one of the best way to handle most problems is just not to think about them?
20. Do you feel that you have a lot of choice in deciding who your friends are?
21. If you find a four leaf clover do you believe that it might bring you good luck?
22. Do you often feel that whether you do your homework has much to do with what kind of grades you get?
23. Do you feel that when a kid your age decides to hit you‚ there’s little you can do to stop him or her?
24. Have you ever had a good luck ch‎arm?
25. Do you believe that whether or not people like you depends on how you act?
26. Will your parents usually help you if you ask them to?
27. Have you felt that when people were mean to you it was usually for no reason at all?
28. Most of the time‚ do you feel that you can change what might happen tomorrow by what you do today?
29. Do you believe that when bad things are going to happen they just are going to happen no matter what you try to do to stop them?
30. Do you think that kids can get their own way if they just keep trying?
31. Most of the time do you find it useless to try to get your own way at home?
32. Do you feel that when good things happen they happen because of hard work?
33. Do you feel that when somebody your age wants to be your enemy there’s little you can do to change matters?
34. Do you feel that it’s easy to get friends to do what you want them to?
35. Do you usually feel that you have little to say about what you get to eat at home?
36. Do you feel that when someone doesn’t like you there is little you can do about it?
37. Do you usually feel that it’s almost useless to try in school because most other children are just plain smarter than you are?
38. Are you the kind of person who believes planning ahead makes things turn out better?
39. Most of the time‚ do you feel that you have little to say about what your family decides to do?
40. Do you think it’s better to be smart than to be lucky?