Parenting Scale (PS)

Abstract

The Parenting Scale (PS) is a widely utilized psychometric instrument designed to measure specific dimensions of dysfunctional parenting styles, particularly those related to discipline interactions with children. Developed by Arnold and colleagues in 1993, the scale focuses on identifying maladaptive parental responses across three core dimensions: Laxness, Overreactivity, and Verbosity. It serves as a crucial tool in psychological assessment and clinical research to evaluate parenting practices and inform behavioral interventions.

Keywords

Parenting Scale, PS, Dysfunctional Parenting, Discipline, Laxness, Overreactivity, Verbosity, Child Behavior, Behavioral Assessment, Parenting Styles

Authors

Arnold, D.S., O’Leary, S.G., Wolff, L.S., Acker, M.M.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Parenting Scale (PS) is to provide a standardized, self-report measure of parents’ typical responses to their children’s misbehavior in common discipline situations. The scale aims to quantify specific patterns of parental behavior that are considered counterproductive or ineffective in managing child conduct problems. By identifying these patterns, the PS helps clinicians pinpoint areas for targeted intervention, often serving as a pre- and post-treatment measure in parenting training programs.

The instrument is valuable both in clinical settings for diagnostic screening and in research contexts for studying the relationship between specific parenting dimensions and child behavioral outcomes, such as externalizing problems or oppositional defiance.

Construct

The PS measures the overarching construct of dysfunctional parenting behaviors within disciplinary contexts. This construct is multidimensional, operationalized by three distinct subscales or factors:

• Laxness: This factor measures the degree to which parents fail to enforce rules, give in to child demands, or fail to follow through on threats or warnings. High scores indicate inconsistent or permissive discipline.
• Overreactivity: This factor captures harsh, hostile, or emotional reactions to child misbehavior, including yelling, physical punishment, verbal insults, or losing temper. High scores suggest emotionally charged and excessive disciplinary responses.
• Verbosity: This factor reflects the tendency of parents to use excessive talking, lecturing, or long explanations when responding to misbehavior, often resulting in prolonged arguments rather than immediate, decisive action.

Validity

The original validation studies by Arnold et al. (1993) established the scale’s construct and criterion validity. The PS demonstrated strong concordance with observations of parent-child interactions, showing that scores on the PS factors correlated significantly with observed dysfunctional parenting behaviors. For instance, high Laxness scores were associated with observed noncompliance, while high Overreactivity scores correlated with observed parental negativity and aggression.

Subsequent research has continued to support the PS’s validity, confirming its ability to differentiate between parents of clinically referred children (e.g., those with Oppositional Defiant Disorder or Conduct Disorder) and parents of non-referred children. Its concurrent validity is often established through correlations with other measures of parenting stress and child behavior problems.

Reliability

The Parenting Scale exhibits good internal consistency, particularly for the overall total score and the primary subscales (Laxness and Overreactivity). In the initial development, the scale demonstrated acceptable to strong coefficient alpha values, confirming that the items within each factor measure a unified dimension of parenting behavior.

While specific test-retest reliability figures are not provided in the summary source content, the PS has been widely accepted and used in longitudinal studies, suggesting stability over time, particularly in clinical populations undergoing treatment where changes in scores reflect genuine changes in parenting behavior rather than measurement error.

Factor Analysis

The PS is structured around a three-factor model derived through Factor Analysis, accounting for the 30 items. The three factors identified are Laxness, Overreactivity, and Verbosity. The source content specifies the item composition for each factor:

• Laxness Items: 7, 8, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 30.
• Overreactivity Items: 3, 6, 9, 10, 14, 17, 18, 22, 25, 28.
• Verbosity Items: 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 23, 29. (Note: Some items load onto multiple factors, such as Item 7 and 9).
• Items Not on a Factor: 1, 5, 13, 27.

A significant number of items (14 in total) are reverse-scored to mitigate response bias. These include items 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 23, 26, 27, and 29.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Behavioral Rating Scale

Format: 30 items, utilizing a 7-point Likert scale format where respondents choose a number between two bipolar anchors (e.g., “I do something right away” vs. “I do something about it later”).

Language Available: English (and widely translated into other languages for global research).

Population Group: Parents or primary caregivers.

Age Group: Typically used for parents of children aged 2 to 12 years, focusing on the period where discipline and conduct problems are most salient.

Population Details: Applicable to both clinical and non-clinical populations; frequently used with parents enrolled in behavior management training programs.

Test Methodology: The scale is administered to the parent, who rates their frequency of engaging in the described disciplinary behaviors. The score is calculated by summing responses across the 30 items, often creating separate scores for the Laxness, Overreactivity, and Verbosity subscales.

Keywords

Psychological Assessment, Self-Report, Parental Discipline, Clinical Measures, Child Conduct, Psychometrics, Laxness Scale, Overreactivity Scale

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Information not provided in the source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Information not provided in the source content.

Correspondence Address: Information not provided in the source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Parenting Scale (PS) was initially published in 1993. It is often cited as a public domain or low-cost instrument used extensively in academic research and public health initiatives. Researchers and clinicians should consult the primary authors or the publishing journal, Psychological Assessment, for formal guidelines regarding reproduction and use.

The instrument is frequently made available by health organizations for free public use, as evidenced by the provided links. The original PDF can be downloaded here: http://www.first5scc.org/sites/default/files/Parenting%20scale%20-%20English.pdf.

Reference’s

• Arnold, D.S., O’Leary, S.G., Wolff, L.S., Acker. M.M. (1993). The Parenting Scale: A measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline situations. Psychological Assessment, 5, 137–144.
• Arnold, O’leary, Wolf, & Acker (1993). Parenting Scale (PS). In Fischer, Joel., Corcoran, Kevin J. (2007). Measures for Clinical Practice and research: A sourcebook. (4th ed.). NY. Oxford University Pr. Vol. 1, Page (s): 400-404.

Items of the Parenting Scale (PS)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. When my child misbehaves… I do something right away. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I do something about it later.

2. Before I do something about a problem… I give my child several reminders or warnings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I use only one reminder or warning.

3. When I’m upset or under stress… I am picky and on my child’s back. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I am no more picky than usual.

4. When I tell my child not to do something… I say very little. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I say a lot.

5. When my child pesters me… I can ignore the pestering. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I can’t ignore the pestering.

6. When my child misbehaves… I usually get into a long argument with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I don’t get into an argument.

7. I threaten to do things that… I am sure I can carry out. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I know I won’t actually do.

8. I am the kind of parent that… sets limits on what my child is allowed to do. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 lets my child do whatever he or she wants.

9. When my child misbehaves… I give my child a long lecture. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I keep my talks short and to the point.

10. When my child misbehaves… I raise my voice or yell. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I speak to my child calmly.

11. If saying no doesn’t work right away… I take some other kind of action. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I keep talking and trying to get through to my child.

12. When I want my child to stop doing something… I firmly tell my child to stop. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I coax or beg my child to stop.

13. When my child is out of my sight… I often don’t know what my child is doing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I always have a good idea of what my child is doing.

14. After there’s been a problem with my child… I often hold a grudge. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 things get back to normal quickly.

15. When we’re not at home… I handle my child the way I do at home. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I let my child get away with a lot more.

16. When my child does something I don’t like… I do something about it every time it happens. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I often let it go

17. When there’s a problem with my child… things build up and I do things I don’t mean to do. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 things don’t get out of hand.

18. When my child misbehaves‚ I spank‚ slap‚ grab‚ or hit my child… never or rarely. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 most of the time.

19. When my child doesn’t do what I ask… I often let it go or end up doing it myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I take some other action.

20. When I give a fair threat or warning… I often don’t carry it out. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I always do what I said.

21. If saying “No” doesn’t work… I take some other kind of action. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I offer my child something nice so he/she will behave.

22. When my child misbehaves… I handle it without getting upset. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I get so frustrated or angry that my child can see I’m upset.

23. When my child misbehaves… I make my child tell me why he/she did it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I say “No” or take some other action.

24. If my child misbehaves and then acts sorry… I handle the problem like I usually would. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I let it go that time.

25. When my child misbehaves… I rarely use bad language or curse. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I almost always use bad language.

26. When I say my child can’t do something… I let my child do it anyway. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I stick to what I said.

27. When I have to handle a problem… I tell my child I am sorry about it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I don’t say I’m sorry.

28. When my child does something I don’t like‚ I insult my child‚ say mean things‚ or call my child names… never or rarely. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 most of the time

29. If my child talks back or complains when I handle a problem… I ignore the complaining and stick to what I said 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I give my child a talk about not complaining.

30. If my child gets upset when I say “No”… I back down and give in to my child. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I stick to what I said.