Perceived Parental Reactions Scale

Abstract

The Perceived Parental Reactions Scale (PPRS) is a 32-item psychometric tool designed to assess the perceptions of LGB (Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual) individuals regarding their parents’ initial reactions to their coming out. The scale requires respondents to rate both maternal and paternal reactions separately, reflecting on the week the parent first became aware of the respondent’s sexual orientation.

The PPRS evaluates eight theoretical dimensions of perceived parental response, including negative shock, denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance, general homophobia, and parent-focused concerns. Developed based on Weinberg’s (1972) love versus conventionality theory and Savin-Williams’ (2001) initial reactions model, the scale uses a 5-point Likert scale response format, asking participants to indicate agreement or disagreement with various possible reactions.

Keywords

Perceived Parental Reactions Scale, PPRS, coming out, parental acceptance, parental rejection, sexual minority, LGB, homophobia, family relations, psychological assessment.

Authors

Brian L. B. Willoughby, Nathan D. Doty, Ellen B. Braaten, Neena M. Malik.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the PPRS is to quantify the subjective experience of LGB individuals regarding their parents’ immediate responses following the disclosure or discovery of their sexual orientation. This measurement is crucial for understanding the earliest environmental factors that contribute to the mental health and adjustment of sexual minority youth and adults.

The scale is structured into two parallel versions—one for the mother and one for the father—allowing researchers to analyze distinct parental reaction patterns. It provides a standardized method for capturing potentially traumatic or affirming initial reactions, which are often highly salient memories for the individual.

Construct

The PPRS measures the construct of Perceived Parental Reactions to Coming Out, conceived as a multidimensional variable encompassing both negative and positive responses. Initially, the scale aimed to cover nine dimensions derived from stage models of grief and loss, applied here to the parental context.

The final 32-item instrument assesses eight theoretical dimensions, each represented by four items: negative shock, denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance, general homophobia, and parent-focused concerns. While these domains are theoretically distinct, the scale is scored unidimensionally, as factor analysis has not yet supported the reliable use of these domains as discrete subscales.

Validity

Initial empirical evidence supports the construct validity of the PPRS. Studies (Willoughby et al., 2006) found that gay men who reported growing up in families characterized by low cohesion (lack of family togetherness) and low adaptability (lack of family flexibility) reported significantly greater parental negativity upon coming out. Further, gay men who reported coming from families with authoritarian parenting styles endorsed greater negativity from parents at coming out, compared with men who reported having authoritative or indulgent parents.

Regarding convergent validity, the PPRS (mother version) was highly correlated (r = .55, p < .001) with the Family Reactions subscale of the Measure of Gay Related Stressors (Lewis et al., 2001), a measure of LGB individuals’ current perceptions of family rejection due to sexual orientation. Lastly, higher scores on the mother version of the PPRS were also found to relate to higher levels of youth internalizing symptoms, school problems, and depressive symptoms, as measured by the Behavior Assessment System for Children (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004).

Reliability

The reliability of the PPRS has been consistently demonstrated across two independent empirical investigations. In the initial development study (Willoughby, Malik, & Lindahl, 2006), both mother and father versions exhibited excellent internal consistencies (internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha = .97 for both versions). All individual item-total correlations were high, measuring .40 or above.

The PPRS also showed strong test-retest reliability over a 14-day interval (mother version: r = .97; father version: r = .95). Subsequent administration of the mother version to a diverse sample of young LGB individuals (ages 14-25) confirmed these findings, maintaining an adequate internal consistency (alpha = .97) and item-total correlations of .39 and above.

Factor Analysis

While the PPRS was developed to measure eight distinct theoretical dimensions—negative shock, denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance, general homophobia, and parent-focused concerns—the current recommendation is to use the scale as a whole, total score.

This approach is mandated because, to date, available factor analyses have not provided sufficient empirical support for treating the eight theoretical domains as discrete, reliable subscales. Therefore, the total score (ranging from 32 to 160) remains the primary and most robust metric, with higher scores indicating more negative perceived parental reactions.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychological assessment scale

Format: 32-item questionnaire using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Separate versions for Mother and Father reactions.

Language Available: English (Original development)

Population Group: LGB individuals (Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Queer)

Age Group: Adolescents to Young Adults (Ages 14 to 26+ in development studies)

Population Details: Participants in development studies were ethnically diverse young men and women recruited from community- and university-based organizations.

Test Methodology: Retrospective self-report on parental reactions occurring during the week of the initial coming out or discovery event. Total score is obtained by summing all 32 items after reverse scoring items 1, 5, 8, and 10 (Acceptance dimension). Possible scores range from 32 to 160, with higher scores indicating greater negative perceived reactions.

Keywords

Parental rejection, family systems, sexual orientation disclosure, psychological measure, coming out stress, family cohesion, parenting style.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source content for all authors.

Correspondence Address: Brian Willoughby, Learning and Emotional Assessment Program, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, 151 Merrimac Street, Fifth Floor, Boston MA 02114; e-mail: [email protected]

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Test Year: Initial scale development published in 2006 (Willoughby, Malik, & Lindahl).

Permissions and Fee: Information on specific usage fees or formal copyright permissions is not provided in the source material. Correspondence regarding permissions should be directed to the primary author, Brian Willoughby.

Reference’s

The PPRS is conceptually anchored in the following works:

• Weinberg, G. (1972). Society and the healthy homosexual. New York: Doubleday.
• Savin-Williams, R. (2001). Mom. Dad. I’m gay. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Empirical references cited in validation and reliability studies:

• Lewis, R., Derlega, V., Berndt, A., Morris, L., & Rose, S. (2001). An empirical analysis of stressors for gay men and lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 63–88.
• Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2004). Behavior Assessment Scale for Children (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishing.
• Willoughby, B. L. B., Malik, N. M., & Lindahl, K. L. (2006). Parental reactions to their sons’ sexual orientation disclosures: The roles of family cohesion, adaptability, and parenting style. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 7, 14–26.

Items of the Perceived Parental Reactions Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Perceived Parental Reactions Scale—Mother Version

Instructions: Think only about your mother when filling out this questionnaire.

Think back to the week when your mother first became aware of your sexual orientation. Read the following statements and indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement by circling a number. Remember, there are no correct or incorrect answers. These are your opinions.

The week when I told my mother I was gay/lesbian/bisexual (or when she found out I was gay/lesbian/bisexual) she:

1. supported me

2. was worried about what her friends and other parents would think of her

3. had the attitude that homosexual people should not work with children

4. was concerned about what the family might think of her

5. was proud of me

6. believed that marriage between homosexual individuals was unacceptable

7. was concerned about the potential that she wouldn’t get grandchildren from me

8. realized I was still “me,” even though I was gay/lesbian/bisexual

9. believed that homosexuality was immoral

10. thought it was great

11. would have had a problem seeing two homosexual people together in public

12. was concerned about having to answer other people’s questions about my sexuality

13. kicked me out of the house

14. didn’t believe me

15. yelled and/or screamed

16. prayed to God, asking him to turn me straight

17. blamed herself

18. called me derogatory names, like “faggot” or “queer”

19. pretended that I wasn’t gay/lesbian/bisexual

20. was angry at the fact I was gay/lesbian/bisexual

21. wanted me not to tell anyone else

22. cried tears of sadness

23. said I was no longer her child

24. told me it was just a phase

25. was mad at someone she thought had “turned me gay/lesbian/bisexual”

26. wanted me to see a psychologist who could “make me straight”

27. was afraid of being judged by relatives and friends

28. severed financial support

29. brought up evidence to show that I must not be gay/lesbian/bisexual, such as “You had a girlfriend/boyfriend; you can’t be gay/lesbian/bisexual.”

30. was mad at me for doing this to her

31. wanted me not to be gay/lesbian/bisexual

32. was ashamed of my homosexuality

The 5-point scale is repeated following each item.