Philosophy of Human Nature

Abstract

The Philosophy of Human Nature (PHN) scale, developed by L. S. Wrightsman in 1964, is a classic psychological scale designed to measure an individual’s fundamental assumptions and attitudes regarding the nature of humankind. It assesses core beliefs across six bipolar dimensions, such as whether people are essentially trustworthy or untrustworthy, altruistic or selfish, and simple or complex in their motivations. The instrument is crucial for understanding how underlying worldviews influence social perception, political behavior, and interpersonal interactions in various settings, including clinical and organizational psychology.

Keywords

Wrightsman, Philosophy of Human Nature, Trustworthiness, Altruism, Independence, Rationality, Complexity, Variability, Social Psychology, Attitudes.

Authors

Lawrence S. Wrightsman

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Philosophy of Human Nature scale is to quantify and categorize the implicit beliefs individuals hold about the fundamental characteristics of other human beings. These beliefs, often referred to as assumptions about human nature, act as powerful cognitive filters that guide expectations, shape social interaction, and influence decision-making processes. Wrightsman developed the scale to provide a standardized, psychometrically sound measure for researchers studying social cognition and personality theory.

The scale allows researchers to move beyond simple dichotomies (e.g., good vs. bad) by offering a multidimensional view of these philosophies. By isolating six specific factors, the instrument provides a nuanced assessment of an individual’s worldview regarding morality, motivation, consistency, and control over life outcomes.

Construct

The PHN scale measures six distinct, yet interrelated, dimensions (or factors) that constitute an individual’s personal philosophy concerning human nature. These dimensions are crucial for understanding differences in social behavior and expectations. The six dimensions identified in the original research are:

• Trustworthiness vs. Untrustworthiness: Beliefs regarding the honesty, integrity, and reliability of the average person.
• Altruism vs. Selfishness: The assumption that people are motivated by genuine concern for others versus purely self-serving interests.
• Independence vs. Conformity: The degree to which individuals are perceived as capable of autonomous thought and action, or if they are largely influenced by external pressures and public opinion.
• Strength of Will and Rationality vs. Irrationality: Beliefs concerning the extent to which people understand their own behavior, make logical decisions, and control their own destiny (related to Locus of Control).
• Complexity of Human Nature vs. Simplicity: The belief that human motivations and personalities are intricate and hard to fully grasp versus the idea that people are easily understood or predictable.
• Variability in Human Nature vs. Similarity: The perception that people differ significantly from one another in personality and reaction patterns versus the assumption that all people are fundamentally alike.

Validity

The validity of the Philosophy of Human Nature scale has been extensively explored since its introduction. Initial studies focused on construct validity, ensuring that the items loaded onto the hypothesized six factors, confirming the multidimensional structure. Psychological Reports (1964) provided foundational evidence that the scale successfully differentiated individuals based on their stated philosophies, relating these scores to measures of personality and social behavior.

Subsequent research has supported the predictive validity of the PHN scale, demonstrating that scores on the dimensions correlate meaningfully with specific behaviors, such as political attitudes, leadership styles, and reactions to organizational structures. For instance, individuals scoring high on the Trustworthiness factor are more likely to adopt permissive leadership approaches, while those scoring high on the Independence factor tend to be less susceptible to group influence.

Reliability

Reliability analyses for the PHN scale typically focus on internal consistency (measured by Cronbach’s alpha) for each of the six subscales. Data from numerous studies, including those summarized in Robinson and Shaver (1969), generally indicate acceptable levels of reliability for academic research, though specific coefficient values vary depending on the sample population (e.g., student vs. general adult populations).

Test-retest reliability has also been examined, suggesting that an individual’s core assumptions about human nature tend to be stable over short and moderate periods, reinforcing the idea that the scale measures enduring philosophical orientations rather than transient moods or situational beliefs.

Factor Analysis

The six-factor structure of the PHN scale was derived through initial exploratory Factor Analysis conducted by Wrightsman (1964). These six factors—Trustworthiness, Altruism, Independence, Strength of Will and Rationality, Complexity, and Variability—have generally been replicated in subsequent research, confirming the scale’s fundamental structure. While minor variations in item loadings may occur across diverse cultural or demographic samples, the core six dimensions remain the established framework for interpretation.

Each factor is typically measured by 14 items, split evenly between positively and negatively keyed statements to mitigate response bias. This balanced design strengthens the psychometric properties of the overall instrument and ensures that scores reflect genuine underlying beliefs rather than acquiescence tendencies.

Instrument

Test Type:

Attitude Inventory / Personality Measure

Format:

The scale uses a 6-point Likert scale response format, ranging from “agree strongly” to “disagree strongly.”

Language Available:

English (Original)

Population Group:

General Adult Population; Frequently used with college students in social psychological research.

Age Group:

Adolescents and Adults (Typically 16 years and older)

Population Details:

The instrument is suitable for measuring generalized social attitudes and assumptions about human behavior across diverse educational and social backgrounds.

Test Methodology:

Self-report questionnaire administered individually or in groups. Scoring involves summing item responses for each of the six subscales, accounting for reverse-keyed items to derive scores representing the strength of belief in each philosophical dimension.

Keywords

PHN Scale, Social Perception, Personality Assessment, L. S. Wrightsman, Social Attitudes, Measurement of Beliefs, Psychological Instrument, Self-Report.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier:

N/A (Information not available in source content)

Affiliation Email addresses:

N/A (Information not available in source content)

Correspondence Address:

N/A (Information not available in source content)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original publication year of the scale is 1964. For current usage permissions, researchers should consult the primary author’s estate or relevant academic publishers. The instrument is widely accessible in academic collections of psychological measures, such as the volume by Robinson and Shaver (1969). The original PDF can be downloaded here: Measures of social psychological attitudes.

Reference’s

• Wrightsman‚ L. (1964). Measurement of philosophies of human nature. Psychological Reports. 14(3)‚ 743-751.

• Wrightsman‚ L. S. (1992). Assumptions about human nature. 2nd ed. Newbury Park‚ CA: Sage.

• Robinson‚ John P.‚ & Shaver‚ Phillip R. (1969). Measures of Political Attitudes. Institute for Social Research‚ University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Items of the Philosophy of Human Nature

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. Great successes in life‚ like great artists and inventors‚ are usually motivated by forces they are unaware of.

2. Most students will tell the instructor when he has made a mistake in adding up their score‚ even if he had given them more points than they deserved.

3. Most people will change the opinion they express as a result of an onslaught of criticism‚ even though they really don’t change the way they feel.

4. Most people try to apply the Golden Rule even in today’s complex society.

5. I find that my first impression of a person is usually correct.

6. Our success in life is pretty much determined by forces outside our own control.

7. If you give the average person a job to do and leave him to do it‚ he will finish it successfully.

8. Nowadays many people won’t make a move until they find out what other people think.

9. Most people do not hesitate to go out of their way to help someone in trouble.

10. A person’s reaction to things differs from one situation to another.

11. People can be described accurately by one term‚ such as “introverted‚” or “moral‚” or” sociable.”

12. People usually tell the truth‚ even when they know they would be better off by lying.

13. The important thing in being successful nowadays is not how hard you work‚ but how well you fit in with the crowd.

14. Most people will act as “Good Samaritans” if given the opportunity.

15. Different people react to the same situation in different ways.

16. It’s not hard to understand what really is important to a person.

17. Attempts to understand ourselves are usually futile.

18. Most students do not cheat when taking an exam.

19. “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” is a motto most people follow.

20. Each person’s personality is different from the personality of every other person.

21. I think I get a good idea of a person’s basic nature after a brief conversation with him.

22. There’s little one can do to alter his fate in life.

23. Most people are basically honest.

24. The typical student will cheat on a test when everybody else does‚ even though he has a set of ethical standards.

25. People are quite different in their basic interests.

26. If I could ask a person three questions about himself (and assuming he would answer them honestly)‚ I would know a great deal about him.

27. If a person tries hard enough‚ he will usually reach his goals in life.

28. People claim they have ethical standards regarding honesty and morality‚ but few people stick to them when the chips are down.

29. Most people have the courage of their convictions.

30. The average person is conceited.

31. People are pretty much a like in their basic interests.

32. I find that my first impressions of people are frequently wrong.

33. The average person has an accurate understanding of the reasons for his behavior.

34. If you want people to do a job right‚ you should explain things to them in great detail and supervise them closely.

35. Most people can make their own decisions ‚ uninfluenced by public opinion.

36. It’s only a rare person who would risk his own life and limb to help someone else .

37. People are basically similar in their personalities.

38. Some people are too complicated for me to figure out.

39. If people try hard enough‚ wars can be prevented in the future.

40. If most people could get in to a movie without paying and be sure they were not seen‚ they would do it.

41. It is achievement‚ rather than popularity with others‚ that gets you ahead nowadays.

42. It’s pathetic to see an unselfish person in today’s world because so many people take advantage of him.

43. If you have a good idea about how several people will react to a certain situation‚ you can expect most other people to r e act the same way.

44. I think you can never really understand the feeling of other people.

45. The average person is largely the ma‎ster of his own fate.

46. Most people are not really honest for a desirable reason; they’re afraid of getting caught.

47. The average person will stick to his opinion if he thinks he’s right‚ even if others disagree.

48. People pretend to care more about one another than they really do.

49. Most people are consistent from situation to situation in the way they react to things.

50. You can’t accurately describe a person in just a few words.

51. In a local or national election‚ most people se‎lect a candidate rationally and logically.

52. Most people would tell a lie if they could gain by it.

53. If a student does not believe in cheating‚ he will avoid it even if he sees many others doing it.

54. Most people inwardly dislike putting themselves out to help other people.

55. A child who is popular will be popular as an adult‚ too.

56. You can’t classify everyone as good or bad.

57. Most people have little influence over the things that happen to them.

58. If you act in good faith with people‚ almost all of them will reciprocate with fairness toward you.

59. It’s a rare person who will go against the crowd.

60. The typical person is sincerely concerned about the problems of others.

61. People are pretty different from one another in what “makes them tick.”

62. Most people have an unrealistically favorable view of their own capabilities.

63. Most people have to rely on someone else to make their important decision s for them.

64. Most people with a fallout shelter would let their neighbors stay in it during a nuclear attack.

65. When I meet a person‚ I look for one basic ch‎aracteristic through which I try to understand him.

66. Most persons have a lot of control over what happens to them in life.

67. Most people would cheat on their income tax‚ if they had a chance.

68. The person with novel ideas is respected in our society.

69. Most people exaggerate their troubles in order to get sympathy.

70. If I can see how a person reacts to one situation‚ I have a good idea of how he will react to other situations.

71. People are too complex to ever be understood fully.

72. Most people have a good idea of what their strengths and weaknesses are.

73. Often a person’s basic personality is altered by such things as a religious conversion‚ psycho-therapy‚ or a ch‎arm course.

74. Most people vote for a political candidate on the basis of unimportant ch‎aracteristics such as his appearance or name‚ rather than because of his stand on the issues.

75. Most people lead clean‚ decent lives.

76. The average person will rarely express his opinion in a group when he sees the others disagree with him.

77. Most people would stop and help a person whose car is disabled.

78. People are unpredictable in how they’ll act from one situation to another.

79. People are so complex it is hard to know what “makes them tick.”

80. Nowadays people commit a lot of crimes and sins that no one else ever hears about.

81. Most people will speak out for what they believe in.

82. People are usually out for their own good.

83. When you get right down to it‚ people are quite a like in their emotional makeup.

84. Give me a few fact s about a person and I’ll have a good idea of whether I’ll like him or not.