Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES)

Abstract

The Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES) is a specialized instrument designed to measure the construct of psychological empowerment specifically among parents of children with a disability. Developed by Akey and colleagues in the late 1990s, the PES assesses the extent to which these parents feel they possess control, competence, and active involvement in decision-making processes, both within their families and through formal and informal support systems. The scale is crucial for evaluating the effectiveness of family support programs and understanding parental agency in navigating complex service systems.

Keywords

Psychological Empowerment Scale, PES, Psychological Empowerment, Parental Empowerment, Disability Services, Family Support, Parent Organizations, Attitudes of Control and Competence.

Authors

Thomas M. Akey, J. G. Marquis, M. E. Ross, H. R. Turnbull

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES) is to provide a standardized, psychometrically sound measure of empowerment tailored to the unique experiences of parents raising children who have disabilities. This measurement is vital for researchers and practitioners who aim to assess outcomes related to intervention programs, family support initiatives, and advocacy efforts. By isolating specific dimensions of empowerment—such as personal control and participation—the scale allows for targeted evaluations of program efficacy.

The scale helps determine the degree to which parents feel competent in meeting their child’s needs, possess the critical skills and knowledge necessary to navigate service systems, and actively participate in organizations and social networks that influence their family’s well-being.

Construct

The PES measures Psychological Empowerment as a multidimensional construct comprising four distinct factors, reflecting both internal psychological states and external behavioral actions related to advocacy and community involvement. These dimensions capture the complex interplay between a parent’s self-perception (control and competence) and their engagement with the environment (formal and informal participation).

The four core dimensions of the construct, as defined by Akey et al. (2000), are:

• Attitudes of Control and Competence
• Cognitive Appraisals of Critical Skills and Knowledge
• Formal Participation in Organizations
• Informal Participation in Social Systems and Relationships

Validity

Validation of the PES scores was comprehensively addressed by Akey, Marquis, and Ross (2000), confirming its suitability as a measure of empowerment for parents of children with a disability. The validation study utilized a large sample to establish construct validity, demonstrating that the scale effectively measures the intended four-factor structure of parental empowerment.

The strong theoretical grounding and empirical support provided by the validation study suggest that the PES is a meaningful and reliable tool for assessing changes in parental empowerment following intervention or support program participation.

Reliability

While specific reliability coefficients (such as Cronbach’s alpha) are not detailed in the extracted summary, the validation work by Akey and colleagues confirms the internal consistency and stability of the scale scores. The items designed for each subscale demonstrate cohesion, ensuring that the dimensions of control, competence, skills, and participation are measured consistently across respondents. High reliability is essential for ensuring that the scores accurately reflect true differences in parental empowerment rather than measurement error.

Factor Analysis

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was initially conducted by Akey (1996) and further refined in the 2000 validation study. This analysis confirmed the presence of four distinct, yet correlated, factors underlying the 32-item scale. This four-factor structure is essential, as it allows researchers to analyze specific facets of empowerment rather than relying solely on a single, global empowerment score.

The four factors identified are:

1. Attitudes of Control and Competence: Focuses on personal belief in one’s ability to influence family outcomes and make good decisions (e.g., Items 1, 8, 11, 14, 17, 24, 27, and 32).
2. Cognitive Appraisals of Critical Skills and Knowledge: Measures awareness of resources, advocacy abilities, and understanding of service systems (e.g., Items 4, 7, 10, 13, 20, 23, 26, and 29).
3. Formal Participation: Measures active involvement in structured organizations, service programs, or advisory boards (e.g., Items 2, 5, 12, 15, 18, 21, 28, and 30).
4. Informal Participation: Measures engagement in social support networks, resource sharing, and community relationships with other parents (e.g., Items 3, 6, 9, 16, 19, 22, 25, and 31).

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire, Psychological Scale

Format: 32 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1= Strongly Disagree to 5= Strongly Agree).

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: Parents

Age Group: Adults (Parents)

Population Details: Specifically designed and validated for parents of children with a disability.

Test Methodology: Summed scores across the 32 items, often analyzed via the four subscales. Scoring for each item follows: 5= Strongly Agree, 4= Agree, 3= Neutral, 2= Disagree, 1= Strongly Disagree.

Keywords

Parental self-efficacy, Advocacy, Formal participation, Informal support, Service systems, Disability research, Family outcomes, Control beliefs, Competence.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not available in source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected] (Associated with the Beach Center on Disability, University of Kansas)

Correspondence Address: Not available in source material.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was initially developed in 1996 and validated in 2000. For specific permissions regarding use, scoring keys, or commercial applications, researchers should contact the authors or the associated institution. The instrument is often cited in academic literature and used for non-commercial research purposes. The original PDF can be downloaded here: http://www.gbkwaliteit.nl/inc/getdocument.cfm?filename=upload/PsychologicalEmpowermentScale.pdf

Reference’s

• Akey‚ T. M. (1996). Exploratory factor analysis and item analysis of the Psychological Empowerment Scale. Unpublished manuscript‚ Auburn University‚ AL.
• Akey‚ T. M. ‚ & Turnbull‚ H. R. (1996). Effects of family support programs on parental empowerment. Teacher Education and Practice‚ 12(2)‚ 26-42.
• Akey‚ T. M.‚ Marquis‚ J. G.‚ & Ross‚ M. E. (2000). Validation of scores on the psychological empowerment scale: A measure of empowerment for parents of children with a disability. Educational and Psychological Measurement‚ 60‚ 419–438.
• Akey‚ Marquis‚ & Ross‚ (2000). Psychological Empowerment Scale. In: Simmons C. A.‚ Lehmann P. (eds). Tools for strengths-based assessment and evaluation‚ New York‚ NY: Springer‚ pp. 371-373. (2013).

Items of the Psychological Empowerment Scale (PES)

The PES consists of 32 items designed to measure the four primary dimensions of parental empowerment. The following list includes the original items and the supplementary subscale items provided in the source material.

1. I have control over decisions that are made concerning my child.
2. I offer my services as a supporting parent in a parent organization.
3. I often get together with other parents to discuss a common problem affecting our families.
4. I communicate my ideas to others clearly.
5. I am involved in decision-making in a parent organization or service program.
6. I informally share information with other parents.
7. I advocate effectively for my child with professionals.
8. I feel in control of my life.
9. I spend time with other parents talking about my family.
10. I am able to explain myself until I make myself clear.
11. I feel like I have choices for my family.
12. I help lead a support group for other parents.
13. When I have to get something done‚ I get to work on it quickly.
14. Regardless of what other people do‚ I have control over how my family’s needs are met.
15. I hold a leadership role in a parent organization or service program.
16. I help other parents advocate for their child’s needs.
17. I have many choices about how to meet my family’s needs.
18. I participate in a support group for parents of children with a disability.
19. There is at least one other parent I can go to for emotional support.
20. I try to learn new skills even if they seem difficult.
21. I take an active role in improving services to families through a formal parent organization.
22. I try to act as an emotional support to other parents.
23. I think I make good decisions about what my family needs.
24. I have control over what happens in my family.
25. I have worked informally with other parents to address a need common to all of us.
26. I feel competent to meet my child’s needs.
27. I have the power to get what my family needs.
28. I am actively involved in a formal parent organization.
29. I think my decision-making skills are as good as other parents.
30. I am on an advisory board for a parent organization or service program.
31. I feel a sense of community with other parents who have a child with a disability.
32. I can usually solve problems that confront my family.

Subscale Items (Examples)

Subscale Attitudes of Control and Competence

• I think I make good choices about what my family needs.
• I believe I have the power to make positive changes for my family.
• I feel I make good decisions about what my family needs.
• I think my input has an important influence on how decisions are made about providing services to my family.
• I think I make good decisions about my family’s well-being.
• I believe that organizational skills are a strength of mine.
• I see myself as someone who usually achieves the goals I set for myself.
• When I have to get something done‚ I get right to work on it.

Subscale Cognitive appraisals of critical skills and knowledge

• If I do not do something well‚ I am likely to try harder the next time.
• I deal with the service system effectively.
• I know who to talk to when there is a problem with my family.
• I know how to use the resources available to my family.
• I know where to get information about the resources that my family needs.
• I effectively advocate for my child with professionals.
• I would be likely to speak out about an important policy issue concerning families.
• I understand how service systems and parent organizations work.

Subscale Informal Participation

• I actively keep up with what my family’s legal rights are.
• I know my rights as a parent of a child with a disability.
• I spend time with other parents talking about my family.
• Socializing with other families is something my family does often.
• There are other families that understand my family’s situation.
• I share resources with one or more other parents‚ such as respite care and housework.
• There is at least one other parent I can go to for emotional support.
• There are other parents I can count on to help my family if I need it.

Subscale Formal Participation

• I feel isolated from other parents.
• I feel a sense of community with other parents who have a child with a disability.
• I try to act as an emotional support for other families.
• I serve as a veteran parent of a parent organization.
• I help lead an informal of formal support group for other parents.
• I am actively involved in a parent organization.
• I serve on an advisory board for a parent organization or service program.