Rape Empathy Scale (RES)

Abstract

The Rape Empathy Scale (RES) is a specialized psychological scale developed by Deitz, Blackwell, Daley, and Bentley in 1982. Its primary function is to quantify individuals’ differential attitudes and levels of empathy specifically concerning victims and perpetrators of sexual assault. The RES is designed to measure the extent to which respondents endorse attitudes that attribute blame to the victim or, conversely, exhibit justification or sympathy toward the rapist.

This instrument is foundational for research investigating underlying factors such as jury bias, attitudes toward women, and the prevalence of victim blaming and rape myth acceptance within the general population, particularly among legal and criminal justice system personnel. The RES provides a critical index for assessing biases related to sexual violence attitudes.

Keywords

Rape Empathy Scale, RES, Differential Empathy, Victim Empathy, Rapist Empathy, Victim Blaming, Rape Myth Acceptance, Sexual Violence Attitudes, Psychological Measurement, Forensic Psychology

Authors

Deitz, S., Blackwell, K.T., Daley, P.C., Bentley, B.J.

Purpose

The core purpose of the Rape Empathy Scale (RES) is to offer a reliable and empirically quantifiable assessment of cognitive and affective responses when individuals are presented with scenarios involving rape. It serves to clearly differentiate between two opposing attitudinal poles: those who display genuine empathy toward the victim and rejection of perpetrator justification, versus those who hold deep-seated prejudices often rooted in socially pervasive rape myths.

Academically and forensically, the scale is indispensable for identifying predictors of biased judgment. Specifically, researchers use the RES to determine factors influencing the assessment of culpability and the perceived credibility of sexual assault victims in judicial and legal contexts. Higher scores on the scale are indicative of strong victim empathy and a robust rejection of victim-blaming narratives, whereas lower scores reflect greater acceptance of perpetrator justification.

Construct

The RES is structured to measure the psychological construct of differential empathy within the specific domain of sexual violence attitudes. This construct is understood to exist along a bipolar continuum. At one extreme, there is high empathy for the victim coupled with stringent intolerance for the perpetrator’s actions. At the opposite extreme lies the endorsement of high victim blame, rationalization of the perpetrator’s behavior, and strong adherence to rape myth acceptance.

The instrument’s forced-choice format compels respondents to select between two antithetical viewpoints concerning key aspects of sexual violence, including responsibility attribution, perceived provocation, and the emotional impact experienced by both the victim and the rapist. This design effectively captures subtle and overt attitudes that serve to rationalize violence or minimize the severity of the victim’s trauma following a sexual assault.

Validity

Initial validation efforts conducted by Deitz et al. (1982) confirmed the construct validity of the RES. This was demonstrated through significant correlations between RES scores and established measures of other relevant social attitudes, such as adherence to traditional gender roles and general conservatism. Notably, individuals exhibiting low victim empathy scores consistently scored higher on measures of authoritarianism and hostility toward women, confirming that the scale taps into broader prejudiced frameworks.

Furthermore, the scale exhibits strong criterion-related validity. Research has shown that RES scores reliably predict outcomes such as mock jury judgments of guilt or innocence and attitudes regarding necessary legal reforms in the area of sexual violence. Its proven capacity to predict victim-blaming behavior solidifies the RES as a robust and accurate measure of the intended construct across diverse research and practical settings.

Reliability

The Rape Empathy Scale consistently demonstrates high internal consistency, a crucial measure of reliability. Original validation studies and subsequent psychometric assessments have frequently reported high Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, often exceeding 0.80. This indicates that the individual items within the scale are highly correlated and reliably measure the single underlying construct of differential empathy/blaming.

The scale also shows acceptable test-retest reliability over moderate time intervals. This stability suggests that the fundamental attitudes toward sexual violence captured by the RES are relatively enduring. This attribute is vital, enabling the scale to be effectively used for measuring baseline attitudes prior to implementing psychological or educational interventions aimed at reducing rape myth acceptance and victim blaming.

Factor Analysis

While the RES is commonly treated as a unidimensional scale, yielding one total score that reflects overall empathy/blaming tendencies, some factor analytic studies have suggested a more nuanced two-factor structure. These identified factors generally partition the attitudes into two distinct, yet highly interrelated, components:

• Empathy/Sympathy for the Victim (Victim Empathy).
• Justification/Sympathy for the Rapist (Rapist Empathy/Blaming).

Despite the emergence of these two factors, they are consistently found to be highly negatively correlated. Consequently, the standard practice in academic research remains the utilization of the total RES score as a unified, composite index of attitudes toward sexual violence and differential empathy.

Instrument

Test Type: Attitude Scale / Self-Report Inventory

Format: Forced-choice items (A or B statements) rated on a Likert-type scale.

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: General population, students, prospective jurors, legal professionals.

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (typically 18+)

Population Details: While originally validated on university student populations, the scale is applicable to any group whose attitudes toward sexual violence and empathy are being assessed.

Test Methodology: Respondents are required to select the statement (A or B) that most closely aligns with their personal belief. They then rate their level of agreement with that selected statement using a 6-point scale, typically ranging from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 6 (Strongly Disagree).

Keywords

Psychometrics, Social Psychology, Forensic Psychology, Attitude Measurement, Sexual Offenses, Rape Attitudes, Differential Empathy, Victim Blaming

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not Available

Affiliation Email addresses: Not Available

Correspondence Address: Not Available (Refer to the 1982 publication for institutional affiliation)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Rape Empathy Scale (RES) was first published in 1982. As an instrument published in a major academic publication, it is generally available for non-commercial academic research without explicit fees. However, researchers are advised that formal permission may still be required from the copyright holders of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (which is published by the American Psychological Association).

The instrument has been compiled in several resource compendiums focusing on measures related to violence against women. The original PDF compilation of the scale can be downloaded here: http://www.svri.org/measures.pdf

Reference’s

Deitz, S., Blackwell, K.T., Daley, P.C., & Bentley, B.J. (1982). Measurement of empathy toward rape victims and rapists. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(2), August, 372-384.

Items of the Rape Empathy Scale (RES)

Note: Item 15 was eliminated from the final version of the scale. An asterisk denotes the victim empathic statement within each item. Scoring utilizes a 6-point scale ranging from Strongly Agree (1) to Strongly Disagree (6).

1. *a) I feel that the situation in which a man compels a woman to submit to sexual intercourse against her will is an unjustifiable act under any circumstances.

b) I feel that the situation in which a man compels a woman to submit to sexual intercourse against her will is a justifiable act under certain circumstances.

2. a) In deciding the matter of guilt or innocence in a rape case‚ it is more important to know about the past sexual activity of the alleged rape victim than the past sexual activity of the alleged rapist.

*b) It is more important to know about the past sexual activity of the alleged rapist than the past sexual activity of the alleged rape victim in deciding the matter of guilt or innocence in a rape case.

3. a) In general‚ I feel that rape is an act that is provoked by the rape victim.

*b) In general‚ I feel that rape is an act that is not provoked by the rape victim.

4. a) I would find it easier to imagine how a rapist might feel during an actual rape than how a rape victim might feel.

*b) I would find it easier to imagine how a rape victim might feel during an actual rape than how a rapist might feel.

5. a) Under certain circumstances‚ I can understand why a man would use force to obtain sexual relations with a woman.

*b) I cannot understand why a man would use force to obtain sexual relations with a woman under any circumstances.

6. *a) In a court of law‚ I feel that the rapist must be held accountable for his behavior during the rape.

b) In a court of law‚ I feel that the rape victim must be held accountable for her behavior during the rape.

7. a) When a woman dresses in a sexually attractive way‚ she must be willing to accept the consequences of her behavior‚ whatever they are‚ since she is signaling her interest in ha‎ving sexual relations.

*b) A woman has the right to dress in a sexually attractive way whether she is really interested in ha‎ving sexual relations or not.

8. a) I would find it easier to empathize with the shame and humiliation a rapist might feel during a trial for rape than with the feelings a rape victim might have during the trial.

*b) I would find it easier to empathize with the shame and humiliation a rape victim might feel during a trial to prove rape than with the feelings a rapist might have during the trial.

9. a) If a man rapes a sexually active woman‚ he would probably be justified in his actions by the fact that she chooses to have sexual relations with other men.

*b) If a man rapes a sexually active woman‚ his actions would not be justified by the fact that she chooses to have sexual relations with other men.

10. a) I believe that all women secretly want to be raped.

*b) I don’t believe that any women secretly want to be raped.

11. a) In deciding whether a rape has occurred or not‚ the burden of proof should rest with the woman‚ who must prove that a rape has actually occurred.

*b) In deciding whether a rape has occurred or not‚ the burden of proof should rest with the man‚ who must prove that a rape has not actually occurred.

12. *a) I believe that it is impossible for a rape victim to enjoy being raped.

b) I believe that it is possible for a rape victim to enjoy the experience of being raped‚ whether she admits it or not.

13. a) I can really empathize with the helplessness a rapist might feel during a rape‚ since he’s at the mercy of forces beyond his control.

*b) I can really empathize with the helplessness a victim might feel during a rape if all of her attempts to resist the rape have failed.

14. *a) After a rape has occurred‚ I think the woman would suffer more emotional torment in dealing with the police than the man would.

b) After a rape has occurred‚ I think the man would suffer more emotional torment in dealing with the police than the woman would.

15. a) If a rape were interrupted‚ I think the victim would feel more embarrassment than the rapist.

b) If a rape were interrupted‚ I think the rapist would feel more embarrassment than the rape victim.

16. a) I feel it is impossible for a man to rape a woman unless she is willing.

*b) I feel it is possible for a man to rape a woman against her will.

17. *a) If a rape trial were publicized in the press‚ I feel the rape victim would suffer more emotional trauma from the publicity than the rapist.

b) If a rape trial were publicized in the press‚ I feel the rapist would suffer more emotional trauma from the publicity than the rape victim.

18. a) Once a couple has had sexual intercourse‚ then that issue is resolved and it is no longer possible for that man to rape that woman.

*b) Even if a couple has had sexual intercourse before‚ if the man forces the woman to have sexual intercourse with him against her will‚ this should be considered rape.

19. *a) I can understand a wife’s humiliation and anger if her husband forced her to have sexual relations with him.

b) A husband has every right to determine when sexual relations with his wife occur‚ even if it means forcing her to have sex with him.

20. *a) If I were a member of the jury in a rape trial‚ I would probably be more likely to believe the woman’s testimony than the man’s‚ since it takes a lot of courage on the woman’s part to accuse the man of rape.

b) If I were a member of the jury in a rape trial‚ I would probably be more likely to believe the man’s testimony than the woman’s‚ since rape is a charge that is difficult to defend against‚ even if the man is innocent.