Reason for Living Scales

Abstract

The Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) is a foundational psychometric tool developed by Marsha M. Linehan and colleagues in 1983. Its primary function is to measure the strength and presence of specific adaptive beliefs and commitments that act as crucial protective factors against suicidal behavior. Unlike traditional risk assessment instruments that focus on pathology (e.g., depression or hopelessness), the RFL provides a strengths-based counterpoint by quantifying motivations for survival.

The inventory exists in several validated forms, including the original 72-item version, the widely utilized 48-item adult scale (RFL-I), and the specialized 32-item Reasons for Living Inventory for Adolescents (RFL-A). Clinically and theoretically, the strength of these measured reasons is theorized to be inversely correlated with the likelihood of future suicide attempts, positioning the RFL as an essential instrument for both clinical intervention planning and empirical research into suicide prevention.

Keywords

Reasons for Living Inventory, RFL, Suicidal Ideation, Protective Factors, Suicide Prevention, Clinical Psychology, Psychometric Properties, Marsha Linehan, Suicide Risk Assessment, Resilience, RFL-A, Dialectical Behavior Therapy.

Authors

Marsha M. Linehan, J. L. Goodstein, S. L. Nielsen, J. A. Chiles, Ahmed Osman, K. Jones, J. R. Osman, B. A. Kopper, F. X. Barrios.

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Purpose

The central purpose of the RFL is to systematically identify, measure, and quantify specific strengths—beliefs, commitments, and fears—that function as critical psychological buffers against the impulse or decision to engage in suicidal acts. This focus on life-affirming motivations offers a necessary clinical counterbalance to traditional instruments focused solely on distress and pathology, enabling a more holistic view of the individual’s risk profile.

In clinical practice, the RFL is highly valuable for informing and tailoring treatment protocols, particularly those designed to enhance a client’s commitment to life. High scores on specific subscales can highlight areas of inherent resilience that therapists can strategically reinforce. This is especially relevant within therapeutic frameworks such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), where increasing commitment to life is a core treatment goal.

Construct

The RFL operationalizes a multidimensional construct centered on protective factors against suicide. These factors are theorized to function as powerful cognitive and emotional deterrents, reducing the probability of engaging in suicidal behavior even during periods of intense emotional suffering or acute suicidal ideation. The construct encompasses various domains, reflecting motivations for survival rooted in internal resources, future goals, and external social or moral obligations.

Crucially, the scale assesses the subjective importance of these reasons to the respondent. A factor is considered protective only if the individual genuinely values or adheres to it. This subjective measurement ensures the scale captures authentic, internalized reasons for living, providing a robust measure of resilience distinct from general negative symptomatology.

Validity

The validity of the Reasons for Living Inventory has been extensively documented in research literature since its inception. Consistent findings demonstrate strong evidence for construct validity, typically showing significant inverse correlations between total RFL scores and established measures of suicide risk, hopelessness, and depression. Specifically, higher RFL scores are reliably associated with a reduced history of suicide attempts and lower current levels of suicidal ideation.

Furthermore, the RFL exhibits robust discriminant validity, confirming that it measures unique protective factors rather than simply the absence of psychopathology. Differential predictive power among the various subscales suggests that the inventory successfully captures the complex, multidimensional nature of life-affirming beliefs, providing nuanced information beyond a single risk score.

Reliability

The RFL demonstrates excellent reliability across both the adult (RFL-I) and adolescent (RFL-A) versions. For the standard 48-item adult inventory, internal consistency, typically measured using Cronbach’s alpha, is consistently high, generally ranging between 0.89 and 0.94 for the total scale score. This indicates strong internal coherence, meaning the items within the scale measure a single, unified construct of protective factors.

Beyond internal consistency, studies have also confirmed adequate to strong test-retest reliability across various time intervals (weeks to months). This temporal stability confirms the RFL’s ability to provide consistent and reliable measurements of chronic protective beliefs, making it an appropriate instrument for longitudinal research and monitoring therapeutic change over time.

Factor Analysis

Factor analytic studies have been essential in defining the internal structure of the RFL. The most commonly used adult version (48 items) is typically organized into five primary factors, each representing a distinct domain of protective motivation:

1. Survival and Coping Beliefs (SCB): Reflects the respondent’s confidence in their internal resources, such as problem-solving abilities, stress management, and maintaining hope for a better future.
2. Responsibility to Family (RF): Encompasses obligations and deep emotional commitment to family members, often citing the potential suffering of loved ones as a powerful deterrent to suicide.
3. Fear of Suicide (FS): Measures specific anxieties related to the suicidal act itself, including fear of the pain involved, fear of the unknown, or fear of failing the attempt.
4. Fear of Social Disapproval (FSD): Relates to concerns about the potential negative judgment, shame, or embarrassment that the act of suicide might cause among peers or the wider community.
5. Moral Objections (MO): Reasons based on deeply held religious, ethical, or philosophical beliefs that explicitly prohibit self-harm or ending one’s life.

The Reasons for Living Inventory for Adolescents (RFL-A), developed specifically for youth populations by Osman et al. (1998), utilizes a distinct five-factor structure based on developmental considerations:

• Future Optimism (FO)
• Suicide-Related Concerns (SRC)
• Family Alliance (FA)
• Peer Acceptance and Support (PAS)
• Self-Acceptance (SA)

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report Psychological Test / Inventory

Format: The RFL utilizes a 6-point Likert scale. Respondents rate the importance of each item as a reason for not killing themselves, ranging from 1 (Not At All Important) to 6 (Extremely Important).

Language Available: English (original), with standardized translations available in several languages, including Farsi/Iranian.

Population Group: Adults and Adolescents.

Age Group: Typically 13 years and older (RFL-A for adolescents; RFL-I for adults).

Population Details: Used extensively in both non-clinical populations for baseline data and clinical populations presenting with high-risk diagnoses such as suicidal ideation, major depression, and borderline personality disorder.

Test Methodology: The scale is administered via self-report. Total scores and specific subscale scores are calculated by summing the ratings, where higher scores consistently reflect stronger, more effective protective factors against suicide.

Keywords

RFL-A, Adolescent Suicide, Coping Skills, Moral Beliefs, Family Responsibility, Fear of Death, Clinical Assessment, Resilience, Suicidal Behavior, Psychometric properties.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A

Correspondence Address: N/A

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) was first published in 1983 by Linehan, Goodstein, Nielsen, and Chiles. The scale is widely utilized in academic research and clinical practice globally. For formal use, particularly for commercial or large-scale research projects, researchers and clinicians are advised to seek direct permission from the primary author, Marsha M. Linehan, or the University of Washington Behavioral Research and Therapy Clinics (UW BRTC). The scale is often provided freely for non-commercial academic use.

The original PDF for the 72-item long form can be downloaded here: http://depts.washington.edu/uwbrtc/wp-content/uploads/Reasons-for-Living-Scale-long-form-72-items.pdf

A reference to the original 1983 publication containing the inventory is also available as a PDF: The Reasons for Living Inventory (1983).

Reference’s

• Linehan, M. M. (1981). Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire. Unpublished inventory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
• Linehan, M. M., Goodstein, J. L., Nielsen, S. L., & Chiles, J. A. (1983). Reasons for staying alive when you are thinking of killing yourself: The Reasons for Living Inventory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 276–286.
• Osman, A., Jones, K., & Osman, J. R. (1991). The Reasons for Living Inventory: Psychometric properties. Psychological Reports, 69, 271–278.
• Osman, A., Gregg, C. L., Osman, J. R., & Jones, K. (1992). Factor structure and reliability of the Reasons for Living Inventory. Psychological Reports, 70, 107– 112.
• Osman, A., Gifford, J., Jones, T., Lickiss, L., Osman, J., & Wenzel, R. (1993). Psychometric evaluation of the Reasons for Living Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 5, 154–158.
• Osman, A., Kopper, B. A., Francisco X. Barrios, F. X., Osman, J. R., Besett, T. M., Linehan, M. M. (1996). The brief Reasons for Living Inventory for adolescents (BRFL-A). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(4), 433–443.
• Osman, A., Downs, W. R., Kopper, B, A., Barrios, F. X., Baker, M. T., Osman, J. R., Besett, T. M., Linehan, M. M. (1998). The Reasons for Living Inventory for Adolescents (RFL-A): development and psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54(8):1063-1078.
• Gutierrez, P. M., Osman, A., Kopper, B., & Barrios, F. X. (2000). Why young people do not kill themselves: The Reasons For Living Inventory For Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 47, 403-413.
• Khodabakhshi koolaee, Anahita., Mahmmodi, O., Davaji, Rahmanberdi Ozuoni. (2008). Standardization of Reasons for Living Inventory for adolescents: Diagnosis, appraisal, therapy and rehabilitation of people who attempt to suicide. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal, 6(7 &8), 47-58.
• Fischer, Joel., Corcoran, Kevin J. (2007). Measures for Clinical Practice and research: A sourcebook. (4th ed.). NY. Oxford University Pr. Vol. 1, Page (s): 592-594.

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Items of the Reason for Living Scales

RFL-I (72 Items – Linehan, 1996)

1. I have a responsibility and commitment to my family.
2. I believe I can learn to adjust or cope with my problems.
3. I believe I have control over my life and destiny.
4. I have a desire to live.
5. I believe only God has the right to end a life.
6. I am afraid of death.
7. My family might believe I did not love them.
8. I do not believe that things get miserable or hopeless enough that I would rather be dead.
9. My family depends upon me and needs me.
10. I do not want to die.
11. I want to watch my children as they grow.
12. Life is all we have and is better than nothing.
13. I have future plans I am looking forward to carrying out.
14. No matter how badly I feel, I know that it will not last.
15. I am afraid of the unknown.
16. I love and enjoy my family too much and could not leave them.
17. I want to experience all that life has to offer and there are many experiences I haven’t had yet which I want to have.
18. I am afraid that my method of killing myself would fail.
19. I care enough about myself to live.
20. Life is too beautiful and precious to end it.
21. It would not be fair to leave the children for others to take care of.
22. I believe I can find other solutions to my problems.
23. I am afraid of going to hell.
24. I have a love of life.
25. I am too stable to kill myself.
26. I am a coward and do not have the guts to do it.
27. My religious beliefs forbid it.
28. The effect on my children could be harmful.
29. I am curious about what will happen in the future.
30. It would hurt my family too much and I would not want them to suffer.
31. I am concerned about what others would think of me.
32. I believe everything has a way of working out for the best.
33. I could not decide where, when, and how to do it.
34. I consider it morally wrong.
35. I still have many things left to do.
36. I have the courage to face life.
37. I am happy and content with my life.
38. I am afraid of the actual “act” of killing myself (the pain, blood, violence).
39. I believe killing myself would not really accomplish or solve anything.
40. I have hope that things will improve and the future will be happier.
41. Other people would think I am weak and selfish.
42. I have an inner drive to survive.
43. I would not want people to think I did not have control over my life.
44. I believe I can find a purpose in life, a reason to live.
45. I see no reason to hurry death along.
46. I am so inept that my method would not work.
47. I would not want my family to feel guilty afterwards.
48. I would not want my family to think I was selfish or a coward.
49. I would not be able to see the effect of my death on others.
50. Close friends depend upon me and need me.
51. I can find meaning in suffering.
52. There are friends I enjoy and love too much to leave.
53. I have too much pride in myself.
54. Rational people do not kill themselves.
55. If I were depressed enough to want to die, I would be too depressed to kill myself.
56. I make a contribution to society.
57. Society disapproves of killing myself.
58. I have people who love me and who would listen to and understand me.
59. I see no reason to die and let someone else enjoy the things I worked for.
60. It is a sign of weakness and I don’t want to be a quitter or a failure.
61. I am afraid that my death would not matter to anyone.
62. The finality of the act would stop me.
63. It would be too much of an embarrassment to my family.
64. It would hurt my close friends too much.
65. There are obligations I feel I should keep.
66. I would think of others worse off than myself.
67. I have a job in which I am involved and where I am needed.
68. I have a responsibility and commitment to my friends.
69. I would know I probably was not serious and it was just a passing thought.
70. Experiencing unhappiness is an important part of life.
71. I would stop feeling sorry for myself.
72. The thought of suicide is totally incomprehensible to me.

RFL-A (32 Items – Osman et al, 1998)

1. Whenever I have a problem, I can turn to my family for support or advice.
2. It would be painful and frightening to take my own life.
3. I accept myself for what I am.
4. I have a lot to look forward to as I grow older.
5. My friends stand by me whenever I have a problem.
6. I feel loved and accepted by my close friends.
7. I feel emotionally close to my family.
8. I am afraid to die, so I would not consider killing myself.
9. I like myself just the way I am.
10. My friends care a lot about me.
11. I would like to accomplish my plans or goals in the future.
12. My family takes the time to listen to my experiences at school, work, or home.
13. I expect many good things to happen to me in the future.
14. I am satisfied with myself.
15. I am hopeful about my plans or goals for the future.
16. I believe my friends appreciate me when I am with them.
17. I enjoy being with my family.
18. I feel that I am an OK person.
19. I expect to be successful in the future.
20. The thought of killing myself scares me.
21. I am afraid of using any method to kill myself.
22. I can count on my friends to help if I have a problem.
23. Most of the time, my family encourages and supports my plans or goals.
24. My family cares about the way I feel.
25. My future looks quite hopeful and promising.
26. I am afraid of killing myself.
27. My friends accept me for what I really am.
28. I have many plans I am looking forward to carrying out in the future.
29. I feel good about myself.
30. My family cares a lot about what happens to me.
31. I am happy with myself.
32. I would be frightened or afraid to make plans for killing myself.