Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale

Abstract

The Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale, also known as the I-E Scale, is a seminal psychological instrument designed to assess an individual’s generalized expectancy concerning the source of reinforcement. Developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1966, this scale operationalizes the concept of Locus of Control, a key component of his social learning theory. The scale differentiates between an Internal Locus of Control, where individuals believe outcomes are contingent upon their own efforts and abilities, and an External Locus of Control, where outcomes are attributed to external forces such as fate, luck, or powerful others. The resulting score provides a measure of this generalized belief system regarding personal control over life events.

Keywords

Locus of Control, Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, I-E Scale, Julian B. Rotter, Social Learning Theory, Personality Assessment, Generalized Expectancy, External locus of control, Internal locus of control.

Authors

Julian B. Rotter

[quads id=5]

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale is to provide a standardized, objective measure of the degree to which an individual perceives reinforcement as being either controlled by external environmental factors or internally by their own actions. Rotter intended the scale to serve as a predictor of behavior across various situations, particularly those involving achievement, political participation, and health-related choices.

The scale is instrumental in research examining how differing control orientations relate to motivational structures, coping mechanisms, and psychological adjustment. A high score indicates a strong External Locus of Control, suggesting a belief that outcomes are determined by forces outside of personal influence. Conversely, a low score reflects an Internal Locus of Control, implying a belief in self-determination and personal responsibility for success and failure.

Construct

The scale measures the construct of Locus of Control, which refers to a person’s generalized belief about the causal relationship between their own behavior and its consequences. This construct is fundamental to Rotter’s Social Learning Theory, positing that the expectancy of reinforcement (i.e., whether the individual believes their actions will lead to a desired outcome) significantly influences behavior.

The dichotomy measured is strict: Internal Locus of Control reflects the belief that one is responsible for their own destiny, often leading to proactive behavior, greater information seeking, and resilience. External Locus of Control reflects the belief that outcomes are random, determined by luck, fate, or powerful others, which can sometimes lead to learned helplessness or passivity in achievement contexts.

Validity

The validity of the Rotter I-E Scale has been extensively studied since its publication. Concurrent validity was established by showing significant correlations between I-E scores and measures of political activity, achievement motivation, and conformity. For instance, individuals scoring high on internality tend to exhibit more political behaviors and are more likely to attempt to influence others, supporting the scale’s ability to measure generalized expectancy.

Predictive validity is demonstrated in studies showing that internal individuals are more likely to seek information relevant to problems, attempt mastery of their environment, and generally achieve better academic or professional outcomes compared to external individuals. Although designed as a measure of generalized expectancy, its validity holds across various domain-specific applications, though it is acknowledged that domain-specific locus of control measures often offer stronger predictive power in those specific areas (e.g., health locus of control).

Reliability

The Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale generally exhibits acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability for a personality measure of its era. Rotter (1966) reported internal consistency coefficients (using the Kuder-Richardson formula 20, or KR-20) ranging from 0.65 to 0.79 across several samples. These figures are considered adequate given the forced-choice format and the broad, generalized nature of the construct being measured.

Test-retest reliability over several months has typically ranged from 0.49 to 0.83, clustering around 0.70. This demonstrates reasonable stability of the generalized control orientation over time, particularly in adult populations. The reliability is slightly lower when applied to highly specialized or specific populations, reinforcing its nature as a measure of a broad, stable personality trait.

Factor Analysis

While Rotter developed the I-E Scale as a unidimensional instrument designed to measure a single, overarching construct of generalized expectancy, subsequent factor analytic studies have often challenged this assumption. Many researchers have found evidence suggesting the scale is multidimensional.

The most common factor analytic findings suggest the presence of two or more correlated factors, often categorized as: (1) Control over Achievement and Success (personal efficacy and mastery), and (2) Control over Social and Political Systems (belief in the influence of powerful others or societal structures). Despite these findings, the scale continues to be scored and utilized primarily as a single, bipolar measure of generalized Locus of Control in many research contexts, with the total score representing the primary index of externality.

Instrument

Test Type: Personality Inventory (Generalized Expectancy)

Format: Forced-choice format (29 pairs of statements, where the respondent selects the statement they agree with more strongly. Six items are fillers and 23 are scored.)

Language Available: Primarily English, though translated and validated versions exist in numerous languages worldwide.

Population Group: General population, widely used in clinical, organizational, and educational settings.

Age Group: Typically utilized with adolescents (high school age) and adults.

Population Details: Originally standardized on college students, but subsequent norms have been developed for diverse demographic groups.

Test Methodology: Respondents choose one of two alternatives (a or b) for each item pair. Each scored item pits an internal statement against an external statement. The total score reflects the number of external choices made.

Keywords

I-E Scale, Rotter I-E, Psychological Measurement, Control Expectancy, Forced-Choice Test, Personality Trait, Psychological Assessment, 1966 Scale.

[quads id=5]

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Julian B. Rotter predates ORCID system)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Historical Instrument)

Correspondence Address: Correspondence regarding the original publication is typically directed to the Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut (at the time of publication).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Test Year: 1966

Permissions: The scale is widely considered to be in the public domain for academic and non-commercial research use, given its age and widespread use in the scientific literature. However, formal permissions may be required for commercial applications.

Fee: Generally free for research and educational purposes.

The original source material cited the following external link: http://guerin.ballarat.edu.au/ard/bssh/psych/rot.htm

Reference’s

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1–28. (The primary publication for the scale).

Mirels, H. L. (1970). Dimensions of internal versus external control. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34(2), 226–228.

Source Content Reference: http://guerin.ballarat.edu.au/ard/bssh/psych/rot.htm

[quads id=5]

Items of the Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale

Scoring Note: One point is scored for the external choice in each pair. The external choices are: 2.a, 3.b, 4.b, 5.b, 6.a, 7.a, 9.a, 10.b, 11.b, 12.b, 13.b, 15.b, 16.a, 17.a, 18.a, 20.a, 21.a, 22.b, 23.a, 25.a, 26.b, 28.b, 29.a. A high score indicates External Locus of Control; a low score indicates Internal Locus of Control. Items 1, 8, 14, 19, 24, and 27 are filler items and not scored.

1. a. Children get into trouble because their patents punish them too much.
2. b. The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them.
3. a. Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly due to bad luck.
4. b. People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
5. a. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don’t take enough interest in politics.
6. b. There will always be wars‚ no matter how hard people try to prevent them.
7. a. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world
8. b. Unfortunately‚ an individual’s worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries
9. a. The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense.
10. b. Most students don’t realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings.
11. a. Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader.
12. b. Capable people who fail to become leaders hive not taken advantage of their opportunities.
13. a. No matter how hard you try some people just don’t like you.
14. b. People who can’t get others to like them don’t understand how to get along with others.
15. a. Heredity plays the major role in determining one’s personality
16. b. It is one’s experiences in life which determine what they’re like.
17. a. I have often found tlint what is going to happen will happen.
18. b. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action.
19. a. In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair test.
20. b. Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying in really useless.
21. a. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work‚ hick has little or nothing to do with it.
22. b. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.
23. a. The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions.
24. b. This world is run by the few people in power‚ and there is not much the little guy can do about it.
25. a. When I make plans‚ I am almost certain that I can make them work.
26. b. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow.
27. a. There are certain people who are just no good.
28. b. There is some good in everybody.
29. a. In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck.
30. b. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin.
31. a. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place first.
32. b. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability‚ luck has little or nothing to do with it.
33. a. As far as world affairs are concerned‚ most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand‚ nor control.
34. b. By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can control world events.
35. a. Most people don’t realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings.
36. b. There really is no such thing as “luck.”
37. a. One should always be willing to admit mistakes.
38. b. It is usually best to cover up one’s mistakes.
39. a. It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you.
40. b. How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are.
41. a. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones.
42. b. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability‚ ignorance‚ laziness‚ or all three.
43. a. With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption.
44. b. It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do in office.
45. a. Sometimes I can’t understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give.
46. b. There is a direct connection between how hard 1 study and the grades I get.
47. a. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do.
48. b. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are.
49. a. Many times 1 feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me.
50. b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life.
51. a. People are lonely because they don’t try to be friendly.
52. b. There’s not much use in trying too hard to please people‚ if they like you‚ they like you.
53. a. There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school.
54. b. Team sports are an excellent way to build ch‎aracter.
55. a. What happens to me is my own doing.
56. b. Sometimes I feel that I don’t have enough control over the direction my life is taking.
57. a. Most of the time I can’t understand why politicians behave the way they do.
58. b. In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level.