Scale of Racial Socialization for Adolescents (SORS-A)

Abstract

The Scale of Racial Socialization for Adolescents (SORS-A), developed by Howard C. Stevenson in 1994, is a psychological instrument designed to assess how racial socialization messages are perceived and internalized by African American youth. The scale measures various dimensions through which families, communities, and institutions transmit knowledge, values, and coping strategies concerning race, ethnicity, and racism. It is crucial for understanding the protective factors and psychological adjustments of adolescents navigating race-related stress and discrimination in the United States.

Keywords

Racial Socialization, African American, Adolescents, Cultural Pride, Racism Awareness, Extended Family, Spiritual Coping, Psychological Measurement, Stevenson.

Authors

Howard C. Stevenson, Jocelyn Reed, Preston Bodison.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the SORS-A is to systematically measure the multidimensional constructs of racial socialization as experienced and understood by African American adolescents. This instrument helps researchers and clinicians quantify the range of messages—both explicit and implicit—that parents and family members transmit regarding racial identity, cultural heritage, and preparation for racial bias.

By capturing these different dimensions, the SORS-A allows for a deeper exploration of how specific socialization practices are linked to adolescent well-being, academic achievement, and psychological adjustment in racially diverse or hostile environments. It aims to move beyond simple assessments of prejudice exposure toward a nuanced understanding of cultural resilience factors.

Construct

The SORS-A measures the overarching construct of Racial Socialization, which refers to the developmental processes by which children and adolescents acquire knowledge, attitudes, and values related to race and ethnicity. Specifically, the scale operationalizes this construct into several interrelated sub-dimensions, reflecting the diverse ways families attempt to prepare youth for success and survival within a racialized society.

The scale encompasses messages related to cultural pride and heritage, awareness of systemic racism and discrimination, reliance on spiritual and religious coping mechanisms, and the importance of extended kinship networks (Extended Family Caring) as sources of support and guidance.

Validity

The validation of the SORS-A was a key focus of the original research (Stevenson, 1994), aiming to establish its utility as a multidimensional measure. Preliminary analysis and subsequent validation studies confirmed that the subscales demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and factor distinctiveness, supporting the instrument’s intended theoretical structure.

Stevenson’s work provided evidence of construct validity by demonstrating that the factors align theoretically with established dimensions of racial socialization literature. Further validation studies (Stevenson et al., 1995) linked kinship social support, as measured by the scale, to adolescent perceptions of racial socialization, reinforcing the measure’s ability to capture meaningful psychological constructs.

Reliability

While specific Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients are not detailed in the provided source snippets, the validation efforts (Stevenson, 1994) imply acceptable levels of internal consistency across the derived subscales. Reliability is essential for ensuring that the scale consistently measures the intended latent factors among African American adolescents.

The consistent use and citation of the SORS-A in subsequent academic psychology research suggest that it meets standard psychometric criteria for reliability within studies focusing on race, identity, and family dynamics.

Factor Analysis

The SORS-A was developed based on exploratory and confirmatory Factor Analysis to move toward multidimensionality in measuring racial socialization. The analysis yielded several distinct factors, which categorize the 45 items into meaningful domains of socialization messages. These factors are:

• Spiritual and Religious Coping: Items focusing on faith, God, and religion as sources of strength and decision-making guidance (e.g., Items 4, 7, 13, 21, 22, 28, 40).
• Extended Family Caring: Items emphasizing the importance of grandparents, relatives, kinship, and large families for support and survival (e.g., Items 2, 6, 9, 12, 15, 24, 27).
• Cultural Pride Reinforcement: Messages promoting positive racial identity, pride in African heritage, and the importance of black history and culture (e.g., Items 17, 20, 23, 29, 33).
• Racism Awareness Teaching: Messages preparing youth for prejudice, discrimination, and racial inequality, including warnings about societal bias (e.g., Items 1, 3, 19, 37, 38, 42, 45).
• Life Achievement and Struggling: Items addressing the realities of socio-economic struggle, the need for hard work, and balancing life in dual worlds (e.g., Items 5, 25, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 43).

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Psychological scale

Format: 45 items utilizing a 5-point Likert response scale (1 = Disagree a lot, 2 = Disagree a little, 3 = Not sure, 4= Agree a little, 5= Agree a lot).

Language Available: English

Population Group: African American individuals

Age Group: Adolescents

Population Details: Primarily developed and validated for use with African American adolescents.

Test Methodology: The scale assesses the adolescent’s perception of the racial socialization messages received from their primary caregivers and family unit.

Keywords

Howard Stevenson, Psychometrics, Kinship Support, Racial Identity, Racism Coping, Clinical Practice, Psychology, African American Youth, Multidimensional Assessment.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in source.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not specified in source.

Correspondence Address: Not specified in source.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was initially validated in 1994 (Stevenson, 1994). For permissions and fees related to commercial or extensive clinical use, researchers should contact the primary author, Howard C. Stevenson, or consult the comprehensive sourcebook, Measures for Clinical Practice and Research: A Sourcebook (Fischer & Corcoran, 2007).

The instrument is documented in academic literature, and a source containing the full instrument items is available online: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=etd.

Reference’s

• Stevenson, H. C. (1993). Validation of the scale of racial socialization for African American adolescents: A preliminary analysis. Psych Discourse, 24, 12-12.
• Stevenson, Howard C. (1994). Validation of the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American Adolescents: Steps toward Multidimensionality. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(4), 445-468.
• Stevenson, Howard C., Reed, Jocelyn., Bodison, Preston. (1995). Kinship social support and adolescent perceptions of racial socialization: Extending self to family. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 498-508.
• Stevenson, H. C. (1994). Scale of Racial Socialization for Adolescents (SORS-A). In Fischer, Joel., Corcoran, Kevin J. (2007). Measures for Clinical Practice and research: A sourcebook. (4th ed.). NY. Oxford University Pr. Vol. 1, Page (s): 597-599.

Items of the Scale of Racial Socialization for Adolescents (SORS-A)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. Our society is fair toward black people.
2. Grandparents help parents to make decisions.
3. Black children will feel good about being black in a school with mostly white children.
4. It is important for families to go to church or mosque where spiritual growth can happen.
5. Families should talk about black slavery with their children.
6. Relatives can help black parents raise their children.
7. Religion is an important part of a person’s life.
8. Racism and discrimination are the hardest things a black child has to face.
9. ha‎ving large families can help many black families survive life struggles.
10. Families of black children should teach them to be proud to be black.
11. Children should be taught that all races are equal.
12. Children who have good times with their relatives become better people.
13. A belief in God can help a person deal with tough life struggles.
14. A mostly black school will help black children learn more than a mostly white school.
15. Spending good time with relatives is just as important for parents as it is for their children.
16. Black parents should teach their children about racism.
17. Black parents should talk about their roots to African culture to their children.
18. Relatives can teach children things that parents may not know.
19. Families who talk about racism to their children will lead them to doubt themselves.
20. Schools should be required to teach all children about black history.
21. Depending on religion and God can help a person make good life decisions.
22. Families who talk openly about religion or God are helping their children grow.
23. Teachers should make it so black children can see signs of black culture in the classroom.
24. Only people who are blood-related to you should be called your “family.”
25. Gatling a good education is still the best way for a black child to survive racism.
26. “Don’t forget who your people are because you may need them someday.”
27. When children are younger than 5‚ racism doesn’t bother them.
28. Spiritual battles that people fight are more important than the physical battles.
29. Teaching children about black history will help them to survive a hostile world.
30. “Train up a child In the way he should go‚ and he Will not turn away from It.”
31. A black child has to work twice as hard in order to get ahead in this world.
32. Watching parents struggle to find work can make many black children wonder if it is worth it to try and succeed in the world.
33. Parents can teach children to be proud to be black without saying a word.
34. Black children at a mostly black school will feel better about themselves than those who go to a mostly white school.
35. Black parents need to teach their children how to live In two worlds: one black and one white.
36. Light-skin black persons often think they are better than darker skinned blacks.
37. Whites do not have more opportunities than blacks.
38. A black child or teenager will not be harassed simply because s/he is black.
39. More job opportunities would be open to African-Americans if people were not racist.
40. Black children should be taught early that God can protect them from racial hatred.
41. Whites do not think of black people as lazy or aggressive today like they used to believe 30 or more years ago.
42. Black parents should not teach their children to speak their mind because they could be attacked by others in society.
43. If black parents teach their children that blacks don’t always have the same opportunities as whites‚ they may help them to survive racism and be successful.
44. Black children don’t have to know about Africa in order to survive life In America.
45. My family taught me very little about racism in America.