Self-Efficacy Scales – Alcohol Abstinence

Abstract

The Self-Efficacy Scales- Alcohol Abstinence (AASES) is a specialized psychological instrument designed to assess an individual’s perceived confidence in maintaining alcohol abstinence across a variety of challenging situations. Developed primarily by Carlo C. DiClemente and colleagues, this scale is grounded in Social Cognitive Theory and the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of intentional behavior change. The scale exists in two validated formats—a comprehensive 20-item version and a shorter 12-item version—both of which measure confidence across four distinct factor domains relevant to relapse risk.

Keywords

Self-Efficacy, Alcohol Abuse, Alcoholism, Abstinence, Relapse Prevention, Transtheoretical Model, Substance Use Disorder, Psychological Assessment, Confidence Scales.

Authors

Carlo C. DiClemente, Joseph O. Prochaska, John P. Carbonari, R.P.G. Montgomery, Wayne F. Velicer, J. S. Rossi, S. K. Fairhurst, N. A. Piotrowski.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Self-Efficacy Scales- Alcohol Abstinence is to quantify the degree of self-efficacy an individual possesses regarding their ability to resist drinking in challenging environments or emotional states. This measurement is critical for both research and clinical application, as it helps identify specific high-risk scenarios where a client’s confidence is weakest, thus guiding targeted therapeutic interventions and relapse prevention planning.

The scale is frequently utilized within the framework of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM). By assessing self-efficacy, clinicians can gain insight into an individual’s current stage of change. Higher self-efficacy scores are generally predictive of successful long-term sobriety and are associated with individuals in the Action or Maintenance stages of change.

Construct

The core psychological construct measured is situation-specific Self-Efficacy, particularly related to the maintenance of sobriety. This refers to the belief in one’s capacity to execute the necessary behaviors—specifically coping mechanisms—required to avoid consuming alcohol when faced with internal or external triggers. The scale breaks down this global efficacy into four measurable dimensions, reflecting the multidimensional nature of relapse risk.

These four dimensions—Negative Affect, Social/Positive situations, Physical and Other Concerns, and Cravings and Urges—represent the most common categories of high-risk situations identified in addiction literature. By focusing on confidence within these specific contexts, the scale provides a nuanced and actionable assessment of the client’s perceived ability to achieve and maintain alcohol abstinence.

Validity

The validity of the Alcohol Abstinence Self-Efficacy Scale (AASES) is supported by its strong theoretical alignment with models of behavior change and relapse. The development of the scale was based on systematic identification of high-risk situations, ensuring strong content validity. The factors identified correspond directly to known triggers for relapse in individuals recovering from Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD).

Construct validity is evidenced by the scale’s established predictive utility. Research has demonstrated that AASES scores are robust predictors of future drinking behavior and relapse outcomes. Furthermore, the scale effectively discriminates between individuals who are actively maintaining abstinence versus those who are struggling or anticipating relapse, confirming its role as a reliable measure of confidence in recovery.

Reliability

The internal reliability of the AASES, particularly the 20-item version, is strong, as demonstrated by Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients reported in validation studies (DiClemente, et al., 1994). These coefficients confirm the internal consistency of the items within each factor:

• Confidence in Negative Affect: .88
• Confidence in Social/Positive Situations: .82
• Confidence in Physical and Other Concerns: .83
• Confidence in Withdrawal/Urges: .81

Additional research, such as that conducted by Project DELTA, also supports the scale’s consistency, reporting acceptable, though slightly lower, coefficients across the four factors (ranging from .61 to .67). These results indicate that the scale consistently measures the specific confidence domains it was designed to assess.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis of the Self-Efficacy Scales- Alcohol Abstinence consistently identifies four primary factors that account for the variance in abstinence confidence. This structure confirms that perceived self-efficacy is not a unitary concept in recovery but is dependent on the specific context of the threat to sobriety. The four factors are:

• Negative Affect: Situations involving unpleasant emotional states such as depression, anger, frustration, or worry.
• Social/Positive: Situations involving celebratory events, relaxation, or direct social pressure and encouragement to drink.
• Physical and Other Concerns: Situations involving physical discomfort (e.g., pain, tiredness, headache) or cognitive preoccupation (e.g., concern for others, dreams about drinking).
• Cravings and Urges (Withdrawal/Urges): Situations involving direct physiological or psychological cravings, withdrawal symptoms, or attempts to test willpower.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychometric scale

Format: Likert-type scale. Two versions are commonly used: a 20-item version and a 12-item short form. Responses are anchored on a 5-point confidence scale.

Language Available: Primarily English (original development language).

Population Group: Individuals actively attempting or contemplating alcohol abstinence, typically within clinical or intervention settings for Alcohol Use Disorder.

Age Group: Adults.

Population Details: The scale is validated for use with clinical samples undergoing treatment for alcohol dependence or abuse, often utilized to track progress through the stages of change.

Test Methodology: Respondents are asked to rate how confident they are that they can refrain from drinking alcohol in each specified situation. The 5-point rating scale is:

1. Not at all confident
2. Not very confident
3. Moderately confident
4. Very confident
5. Extremely confident

Keywords

Self-Efficacy, Alcohol Dependence, Relapse, Addiction, Psychological Assessment, DiClemente, Confidence Scales, Substance Abuse, Behavior Change.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: For current correspondence, contact information is typically routed through the Habits Lab at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC).

Correspondence Address: Refer to published works by DiClemente, C. C. (e.g., University of Maryland, Baltimore County affiliation).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was formally validated and published in 1994 (DiClemente, Carbonari, & Montgomery). The instrument is generally available for non-commercial academic and clinical research purposes. The instrument can be found and potentially accessed for research via the Habits Lab website associated with the primary author. The original instrument can be found at: http://habitslab.umbc.edu/self-efficacy-scales/

Reference’s

The scale is supported by foundational research in self-efficacy and addictive behaviors, including key publications:

• DiClemente, C. C. (1986). Self-Efficacy and the addictive behaviors. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 302-315.
• DiClemente, C. C., Carbonari, J. P., and Montgomery, R. P. G. (1994). The alcohol abstinence self-efficacy scale. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 55, 141-148.
• DiClemente, C. C., Fairhurst, S. K., & Piotrowski, N. A. (1995). Self-Efficacy and addictive behaviors. In J. E. Maddux, ed., Self-Efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: Theory, research, and application (pp. 109-141). New York: Plenum.
• Velicer, W. F., DiClemente, C. C., Rossi, J. S., Prochaska, J. O. (1990). Relapse situations and self-efficacy: An integrative model. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 271-283.

Items of the Self-Efficacy Scales- Alcohol Abstinence

20 item Version:

1. When I am in agony because of stopping or withdrawing from alcohol use. (Cravings and Urges)
2. When I have a headache. (Physical and Other Concerns)
3. When I am feeling depressed. (Negative Affect)
4. When I am on vacation and want to relax. (Social/Positive)
5. When I am concerned about someone. (Physical and Other Concerns)
6. When I am worried. (Negative Affect)
7. When I have the urge to try just one drink to see what happens. (Cravings and Urges)
8. When I am being offered a drink in a social situation. (Social/Positive)
9. When I dream about taking a drink. (Physical and Other Concerns)
10. When I want to test my will power over drinking. (Cravings and Urges)
11. When I am feeling a physical need or craving for alcohol. (Cravings and Urges)
12. When I am physically tired. (Physical and Other Concerns)
13. When I am experiencing some physical pain or injury. (Physical and Other Concerns)
14. When I feel like blowing up because of frustration. (Negative Affect)
15. When I see others drinking at a bar or a party. (Social/Positive)
16. When I sense everything is going wrong for me. (Negative Affect)
17. When people I used to drink with encourage me to drink. (Social/Positive)
18. When I am feeling angry inside. (Negative Affect)
19. When I experience an urge or impulse to take a drink that catches me unprepared. (Cravings and Urges)
20. When I am excited or celebrating with others. (Social/Positive)

12 item Version:

1. When I am feeling depressed. (Negative Affect)
2. When I am concerned about someone. (Physical and Other Concerns)
3. When I am worried. (Negative Affect)
4. When I have the urge to try just one drink to see what happens. (Cravings and Urges)
5. When I want to test my will power over drinking. (Cravings and Urges)
6. When I am feeling a physical need or craving for alcohol. (Cravings and Urges)
7. When I am physically tired. (Physical and Other Concerns)
8. When I am experiencing some physical pain or injury. (Physical and Other Concerns)
9. When I feel like blowing up because of frustration. (Negative Affect)
10. When I see others drinking at a bar or a party. (Social/Positive)
11. When people I used to drink with encourage me to drink. (Social/Positive)
12. When I am excited or celebrating with others. (Social/Positive)