The Empathy Quotient (EQ)

Abstract

The Empathy Quotient (EQ) is a widely used, self-report psychometric instrument designed to measure individual differences in empathy across the general population and in clinical groups. Developed by Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright in 2004, the scale is particularly significant in research concerning Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC), including Asperger Syndrome, where difficulties in social cognition and empathy are key diagnostic features. The EQ consists of 60 items and aims to assess both the cognitive component (understanding others’ feelings and thoughts) and the affective component (emotional response to others’ feelings) of empathy.

Keywords

Empathy Quotient, EQ, Empathy, Social Cognition, Psychological Scale, Self-report, Autism Spectrum Conditions, Asperger Syndrome, Baron-Cohen, Cognitive Empathy, Affective Empathy

Authors

Simon Baron-Cohen, Sally Wheelwright

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Empathy Quotient is to provide a quantitative, standardized measure of an adult’s ability to recognize and respond appropriately to the emotional states of others. It was initially developed to investigate the hypothesis that individuals with Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism would score significantly lower on empathy compared to neurotypical controls, thus providing empirical support for the “mind-blindness” theory in ASC. Furthermore, the scale is employed to explore the distribution of empathy scores across the general population, including the investigation of typical sex differences.

Construct

The EQ measures the psychological construct of empathy, which is broadly defined as the capacity to understand and share the feelings of another person. The scale operationalizes empathy through 60 items that tap into two major components: Cognitive Empathy, which is the ability to understand another person’s mental state (Theory of Mind or perspective-taking), and Affective Empathy, which refers to the appropriate emotional response or reaction to another person’s mental state (emotional responsiveness). The scale measures the degree to which an individual naturally and intuitively engages in empathic behaviors and thoughts in various social contexts.

Validity

The validity of the Empathy Quotient has been extensively studied since its introduction. Construct validity is supported by its ability to reliably differentiate clinical populations, specifically adults diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Conditions, who consistently score lower than control groups. Convergent validity has been demonstrated through positive correlations with other established measures of social cognition, such as the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test and measures of theory of mind ability. The scale’s use in cross-cultural research further supports its generalizability, although specific cultural norms can influence item interpretation.

Reliability

The Empathy Quotient typically exhibits high levels of internal consistency. Studies often report a Cronbach’s alpha value for the total scale exceeding 0.85, indicating that the 60 items reliably measure a unified construct of empathy. The test-retest reliability is also considered acceptable, suggesting stability of scores over time in non-clinical populations. The self-administered nature of the scale contributes to its reliability in large-scale studies, though researchers must account for potential response biases inherent in self-report measures.

Factor Analysis

While the EQ was initially designed as a unidimensional measure of total empathy, subsequent factor analyses have often suggested a multi-factor structure. The most common structural models identify two key subfactors corresponding to the theoretical components: Cognitive Empathy (items related to understanding and predicting feelings) and Affective Empathy (items related to emotional responsiveness and concern for others). Some researchers have also identified a third, minor factor related to Social Skills or Social Situations. The original scoring methodology, however, often relies on the total score calculation, combining scores from all 60 items.

Instrument

Test Type: Psychometric Self-report Instrument (Cambridge Behaviour Scale)

Format: 60 items, 4-point Likert Scale response format.

Language Available: English (Original), Persian (Example provided), and numerous other translated versions.

Population Group: Clinical and Non-clinical Adults.

Age Group: Typically 16 years and older.

Population Details: Used extensively in studies involving neurotypical individuals, individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions, and those with other neurological or psychiatric conditions.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate their agreement with each statement using one of four options: Strongly Agree, Slightly Agree, Slightly Disagree, or Strongly Disagree. Scoring is adjusted for reverse-scored items, with the maximum score indicating the highest level of empathy.

Keywords

Psychometrics, Likert Scale, Cognitive Empathy, Affective Empathy, Simon Baron-Cohen, Sally Wheelwright, Social Skills, Self-administered, Clinical Assessment

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Simon Baron-Cohen: 0000-0002-8610-8278 (for primary author)

Affiliation Email addresses: Information typically available through the Autism Research Centre (ARC).

Correspondence Address: Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, UK.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Empathy Quotient is often available for non-commercial academic research use via the Autism Research Centre (ARC). Fees may apply for commercial or non-academic applications. The instrument can be found at: http://www.autismresearchcentre.com/arc_tests and https://db.arabpsychology.com/. The original version was developed and published in 2004.

The original PDF for the Persian version can be downloaded here: http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/tests/EQ60_Persian.pdf

Reference’s

S Baron-Cohen, S Wheelwright. 2004. The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation Of Adults With Asperger Syndrome Or High Functioning Autism, And Normal Sex Differences. J Autism Dev Disord. 34(2): 163-75.

VL Ruggieri. 2013. [Empathy, Social Cognition And Autism Spectrum Disorders]. Suppl 1: Rev Neurol S, 56;13-21.

E Sucksmith, C Allison, S Baron-Cohen, B Chakrabarti, RA Hoekstra. 2013. Empathy And Emotion Recognition In People With Autism, First-degree Relatives, And Controls. Neuropsychologia, 51(1); 98-105.

Items of the The Empathy Quotient EQ

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Cambridge Behaviour Scale, Self-administered

• I can easily tell if someone else wants to enter a conversation.
• I prefer animals to humans.
• I try to keep up with the current trends and fashions.
• I find it difficult to explain to others things that I understand easily, when they don’t understand it the first time.
• I dream most nights.
• I really enjoy caring for other people.
• I try to solve my own problems rather than discussing them with others.
• I find it hard to know what to do in a social situation.
• I am at my best first thing in the morning.
• People often tell me that I went too far in driving my point home in a discussion.
• It doesn’t bother me too much if I am late meeting a friend.
• Friendships and relationships are just too difficult, so I tend not to bother with them.
• I would never break a law, no matter how minor.
• I often find it difficult to judge if something is rude or polite.
• In a conversation, I tend to focus on my own thoughts rather than on what my listener might be thinking.
• I prefer practical jokes to verbal humor.

• I live life for today rather than the future.
• When I was a child, I enjoyed cutting up worms to see what would happen.
• I can pick up quickly if someone says one thing but means another.
• I tend to have very strong opinions about morality.
• It is hard for me to see why some things upset people so much.
• I find it easy to put myself in somebody else’s shoes.
• I think that good manners are the most important thing a parent can teach their child.
• I like to do things on the spur of the moment.
• I am good at predicting how someone will feel.
• I am quick to spot when someone in a group is feeling awkward or uncomfortable.
• If I say something that someone else is offended by, I think that that’s their problem, not mine.
• If anyone asked me if I liked their haircut, I would reply truthfully, even if I didn’t like it.
• I can’t always see why someone should have felt offended by a remark.
• People often tell me that I am very unpredictable.
• I enjoy being the center of attention at any social gathering.
• Seeing people cry doesn’t really upset me.
• I enjoy ha‎ving discussions about politics.
• I am very blunt, which some people take to be rudeness, even though this is unintentional.
• I don’t find social situations confusing.

• Other people tell me I am good at understanding how they are feeling and what they are thinking.
• When I talk to people, I tend to talk about their experiences rather than my own.
• It upsets me to see an animal in pain.
• I am able to make decisions without being influenced by people’s feelings.
• I can’t relax until I have done everything I had planned to do that day.
• I can easily tell if someone else is interested or bored with what I am saying.
• I get upset if I see people suffering on news programs.
• Friends usually talk to me about their problems as they say that I am very understanding.
• I can sense if I am intruding, even if the other person doesn’t tell me.
• I often start new hobbies, but quickly become bored with them and move on to something else.
• People sometimes tell me that I have gone too far with teasing.
• I would be too nervous to go on a big rollercoaster.
• Other people often say that I am insensitive, though I don’t always see why.
• If I see a stranger in a group, I think that it is up to them to make an effort to join in.
• I usually stay emotionally detached when watching a film.
• I like to be very organized in day-to-day life and often makes lists of the chores I have to do.
• I can tune into how someone else feels rapidly and intuitively.
• I don’t like to take risks.

• I can easily work out what another person might want to talk about.
• I can tell if someone is masking their true emotion.
• Before making a decision, I always weigh up the pros and cons.
• I don’t consciously work out the rules of social situations.
• I am good at predicting what someone will do.
• I tend to get emotionally involved with a friend’s problems.
• I can usually appreciate the other person’s viewpoint, even if I don’t agree with it.