The Entrapment Scale

Abstract

The Entrapment Scale, developed by Paul Gilbert and Susan Allan in 1998, is a 16-item self-report instrument designed to quantify the degree to which an individual feels psychologically or physically trapped in their current life circumstances. This concept of entrapment is rooted in an evolutionary perspective, suggesting that the feeling of being unable to escape aversive situations—termed “arrested flight”—is a key factor contributing to severe psychological distress, particularly depression and suicidal ideation. The scale measures two distinct dimensions of this feeling: External Entrapment (being trapped by external circumstances or people) and Internal Entrapment (being trapped by one’s own thoughts, feelings, or self).

Keywords

Entrapment, Arrested Flight, Defeat, Depression, Suicidal Ideation, Evolutionary Psychology, Social Rank, Internal Entrapment, External Entrapment, Affective Disorders.

Authors

P. Gilbert, S. Allan.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Entrapment Scale is to assess the subjective experience of feeling unable to escape or flee from highly aversive life situations or internal psychological states. The scale operationalizes the theoretical concept of “arrested flight,” which, according to evolutionary theory, is a potent stressor linked to the deactivation of approach and safety systems, often manifesting as depression.

Specifically, the scale is utilized in clinical and research settings to differentiate between the source of the feeling of being trapped—whether it is due to external factors (e.g., relationships, obligations, powerful people) or internal factors (e.g., one’s own identity, thoughts, or feelings). High scores on the scale are consistently associated with elevated levels of psychopathology, including chronic depression and an increased risk of self-harm.

Construct

The scale measures the psychological construct of entrapment, which is theorized to be a core component of the “defeat and entrapment” model of depression. This model posits that when an individual experiences persistent social defeat (feeling subordinate or low in social rank) and subsequently feels entrapped (unable to escape the defeating situation), this combination leads to profound helplessness and depressive symptoms.

The 16 items are structurally divided into two subscales, reflecting the dual nature of the construct:

• External Entrapment: This dimension (Items 1–10) focuses on perceived constraints imposed by the environment, circumstances, relationships, or other people.
• Internal Entrapment: This dimension (Items 11–16) assesses the perception of being trapped within one’s own mind, identity, thoughts, or emotional states, often reflecting feelings of self-alienation or self-criticism.

Validity

Studies establishing the validity of the Entrapment Scale demonstrate strong correlations with measures of psychopathology, particularly chronic and treatment-resistant depression. Concurrent validity is supported by its significant association with related constructs such as hopelessness, social defeat, and suicidal ideation. Furthermore, the scale has shown predictive validity, as high entrapment scores often predict the severity and chronicity of depressive episodes, aligning with the scale’s theoretical grounding in evolutionary models of stress response.

Reliability

The Entrapment Scale exhibits good internal consistency, with initial studies reporting high Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for both the overall scale and its two subscales (Internal and External Entrapment). The reliability indicates that the items within each factor consistently measure the intended dimensions of the entrapment construct. Test-retest reliability has also been generally favorable, suggesting stability in the measurement of this core psychological state over time, particularly in clinical populations experiencing chronic distress.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis typically supports a two-factor structure corresponding to the theoretical divisions: External Entrapment and Internal Entrapment. The initial work by Gilbert and Allan (1998) established these two distinct, yet correlated, factors. Subsequent research confirms that while both factors contribute uniquely to overall distress, the internal entrapment factor often shows a particularly strong link to severe self-criticism and suicidal behavior, suggesting that the inability to escape one’s own mental state is highly pathogenic.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire/Psychometric scale

Format: 16 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale.

Language Available: Primarily English, with translations available for use in various international research contexts.

Population Group: Clinical and non-clinical populations.

Age Group: Typically utilized with adults (18+).

Population Details: Widely used in studies focusing on affective disorders, trauma, self-criticism, and suicide risk assessment.

Test Methodology: Respondents indicate the extent to which each statement is “Like You” using the provided scoring system (0 to 4).

Keywords

Psychological Measurement, Likert Scale, Self-Report, Psychopathology, Defeat Theory, Arrested Flight Mechanism, Chronic Stress.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Affiliation was with the University of Derby at the time of publication.

Correspondence Address: Refer to the University of Derby affiliation: www.derby.ac.uk

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was first published in 1998 within the primary academic reference (Gilbert & Allan, 1998). As is common with many psychological scales developed for academic research, permission for use is generally granted freely for non-commercial research purposes, often requiring direct contact with the primary author, Paul Gilbert. No specific fee information is provided in the source material.

Reference’s

• Gilbert, P. & Allan, S. (1998). The role of defeat and entrapment (arrested flight) in depression: an exploration of an evolutionary view. Psychological Medicine, 28, 584-97. (This article contains the scale).
• Gilbert, P., Allan, S., Brough, S., Melley, S. & Miles, J. (2002). Anhedonia and positive affect: relationship to social rank, defeat and entrapment. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71, 141-151.
• Gilbert, P. (2001a). Evolutionary approaches to psychopathology: The role of natural defences. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 17-27.
• Gilbert, P. (2001b). Depression and stress: A biopsychosocial exploration of evolved functions and mechanisms. Stress: The International Journal of the Biology of Stress, 4, 121-135.
• Gilbert. P. (2007). Psychotherapy and Counselling for depression. London: Sage.

Items of the THE ENTRAPMENT SCALE

The Entrapment Scale is a 16-item instrument utilizing a 5-point Likert response format ranging from 0 (Not at all like me) to 4 (Extremely like me). Items 1-10 measure External Entrapment, and Items 11-16 measure Internal Entrapment.

INSTRUCTIONS: For each of the following attitude statements indicate the extent to which you think it represents your own view of yourself. Read each item carefully and circle the number to the right of the statement that best describes the degree to which each statement is Like You. Use the scale below. Please do not omit any item.

SCALE:

0 = Not at all     1 = A little bit     2 = Moderately    3 = Quite a bit      4 = Extremely

      like me              like me               like me                   like me                 like me      

EXTERNAL ENTRAPMENT (Items 1-10)

1. I am in situation I feel trapped in                                                                    0   1   2   3   4
2. I have a strong desire to escape from things in my life                              0   1   2   3   4
3. I am in a relationship I can’t get out of                                                          0   1   2   3   4
4. I often have the feeling that I would just like to run away                          0   1   2   3   4
5. I feel powerless to change things                                                                   0   1   2   3   4
6. I feel trapped by my obligations                                                                      0   1   2   3   4
7. I can see no way out of my current situation                                               0   1   2   3   4
8. I would like to get away from other more powerful people in my life                        0   1   2   3   4
9. I have a strong desire to get away and stay away from where I am now                              0   1   2   3   4
10. I feel trapped by other people                                                                         0   1   2   3   4

INTERNAL ENTRAPMENT (Items 11-16)

11. I want to get away from myself                                                                       0   1   2   3   4
12. I feel powerless to change myself                                                                 0   1   2   3   4
13. I would like to escape from my thoughts and feeling                                0   1   2   3   4
14. I feel trapped inside myself                                                                             0   1   2   3   4
15. I would like to get away from who I am and start again                             0   1   2   3   4
16. I feel I’m in a deep hole I can’t get out of                                                     0   1   2   3   4