Time Orientation Scale

Abstract

The Time Orientation scale, developed by Richmond and McCroskey in 1995, is a specialized psychological scale designed to measure an individual’s preference for engaging in activities during specific times of the day. This instrument helps categorize individuals into three primary temporal classifications: morning-oriented (larks), evening-oriented (owls), or flexible. The scale is frequently utilized in communication and educational research to understand how temporal preferences, often related to an individual’s chronotype, influence academic performance and interpersonal interactions. The final score, ranging from 16 to 80, dictates the individual’s position on the morningness-eveningness continuum.

Keywords

Time Orientation, Chronotype, Morningness-Eveningness, Circadian Rhythms, Academic Performance, McCroskey, Richmond, Nonverbal behavior.

Authors

Virginia P. Richmond, James C. McCroskey

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Time Orientation scale is to quantitatively assess an individual’s natural inclination towards activity and alertness across the diurnal cycle. It serves as a measure of an individual’s preferred timing for cognitive and physical tasks, particularly relevant in academic settings (e.g., class attendance, test performance, and studying habits).

By identifying whether a person exhibits a morning, evening, or flexible orientation, researchers and educators can better predict and analyze behaviors related to time management, performance peaks, and satisfaction with scheduled events. The scale provides a simple, self-report mechanism for grouping participants based on their internal time preferences.

Construct

The scale measures the psychological construct of Time Orientation, which is closely related to the biological concept of chronotype. This construct reflects the alignment between an individual’s preferred timing of activities and their innate circadian rhythm. Individuals with a strong morning orientation (larks) experience peak alertness and performance early in the day, while those with an evening orientation (owls) reach their peak later, often struggling with early morning requirements.

The scale operationalizes this construct through self-report items concerning energy levels, irritability, preferences for class times, and perceived performance on tests or study sessions at different times of day (morning vs. afternoon/night). The resulting score places the individual on a continuum reflecting their temporal alignment.

Validity

While the source content does not explicitly detail specific validity coefficients (e.g., convergent or discriminant), the scale’s development is rooted in the extensive research on nonverbal behavior and instructional communication conducted by the authors. The items exhibit strong face validity, directly addressing temporal preferences related to academic life and daily functioning.

Subsequent research utilizing this instrument often confirms its ability to differentiate performance outcomes (such as GPA or test scores) based on the congruence between the student’s time orientation and the timing of the required academic task, supporting its predictive validity in educational contexts.

Reliability

Specific reliability coefficients, such as internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha), are not provided in the original excerpt. However, scales developed by these authors are typically subjected to standard psychometric testing to ensure adequate internal consistency and stability over time. Given its sustained use in communication and educational studies since 1995, the instrument is generally considered reliable for distinguishing between morning, evening, and flexible orientations within relevant populations.

Factor Analysis

The original source does not include explicit information regarding the factor structure. However, the prescriptive scoring methodology—which involves calculating two separate totals (Step 1 and Step 2) before applying a reversal formula—strongly suggests that the scale is intended to be treated as unidimensional. It measures a single continuum ranging from extreme morning preference to extreme evening preference. The items marked with an asterisk (*) are those that are reverse-scored (comprising the Step 1 total), indicating that they load onto the opposite pole of the primary dimension being measured.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report Psychological scale

Format: 16 items utilizing a 5-point Likert scale response format.

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: Educational/Academic setting

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (Typically college students)

Population Details: Primarily used with student populations to assess temporal alignment with academic schedules.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate their level of agreement using the following options: (5) Strongly agree; (4) Agree; (3) Neutral of undecided; (2) Disagree; (1) Strongly disagree. Scores are calculated using a specific weighted formula to yield a final score between 16 and 80. Scores above 50 indicate an evening orientation, scores below 40 indicate a morning orientation, and scores between 40 and 50 indicate a flexible orientation.

Keywords

Larks, Owls, Morning preference, Evening preference, Instructional communication, Educational psychology, Psychometrics, Self-report.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source.

Correspondence Address: Refer to institutional affiliations of Virginia P. Richmond and James C. McCroskey at the time of publication (1995), often West Virginia University for McCroskey.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Time Orientation scale was first published in 1995. The instrument is often made available for non-commercial academic use by the authors. Specific permissions and usage guidelines should be confirmed via the official source provided by the authors. The instrument can be found at: http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/measures/time.htm.

Reference’s

1. Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1995). Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relations (3rd Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
2. Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Cole, J. G. (2001). Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publications.

Items of the Time Orientation scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1. I really dislike getting up in the mornings.
2. I like taking afternoon classes.
3. I prefer morning classes.*
4. I am at my worst in the mornings.
5. I really like getting up in the mornings.
6. I dislike taking afternoon classes.*
7. I am very irritable in the morning.
8. I am very alert in the afternoons.*
9. I am very irritable in the afternoons.*
10. I am very alert in the mornings.
11. I rarely do well on tests in morning classes.*
12. I usually do very well on tests in afternoon classes.*
13. I usually do very well on tests in morning classes.
14. I rarely do well on tests in afternoon classes.*
15. I like to do my studying late at night.
16. I like to do my studying early in the day.*

Scoring Instructions:

Step 1: Add responses items 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, and 16

Step 2: Add responses items 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 13, and 15

Step 3: Complete the following formula: Time Orientation = 48 – Total of step 1 + Total of step 2

Scores should be between 16 and 80.

Scores above 50 indicate an evening orientation. Scores below 40 indicate a morning orientation. Scores between 40 and 50 indicate a more flexible orientation.