Touch Apprehension Scale

Abstract

The Touch Apprehension Scale (TAS), developed by Richmond and McCroskey in 2004, is a self-report instrument designed to measure an individual’s general orientation towards touch in interpersonal contexts. This 14-item scale assesses the degree to which a person is comfortable with both initiating touch and being touched by others. The scale quantifies the concept of touch apprehension, which is defined as the discomfort or fear associated with giving or receiving physical contact. Scores differentiate individuals into distinct categories: those with a high touch orientation (Approachers), those with a low touch orientation (Avoiders), and those whose behavior aligns closely with general cultural norms regarding nonverbal communication.

Keywords

Touch apprehension, haptics, nonverbal behavior, interpersonal communication, approach-avoidance, McCroskey, Richmond, psychological assessment, self-report inventory.

Authors

Virginia P. Richmond, James C. McCroskey.

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the Touch Apprehension Scale is to quantify an individual’s tendency to approach or avoid physical contact within social and relational settings. It provides a standardized measure for researchers studying the critical role of touch in interpersonal communication and relational development. By assigning a numerical score, the TAS allows for the empirical classification of respondents into specific touch orientations, enabling researchers to investigate how these orientations correlate with other communication variables, relationship satisfaction, and general psychological well-being.

The scale helps establish a baseline measurement for an individual’s comfort level concerning physical contact, which is a fundamental component of nonverbal communication. Understanding one’s level of touch apprehension—ranging from highly positive engagement with touch to strong avoidance—is essential for predicting relational behavior and addressing communication challenges in therapeutic or educational settings.

Construct

The Touch Apprehension Scale measures the psychological construct of Haptic Orientation, which is the degree of comfort and willingness an individual exhibits regarding physical contact. This construct is measured along an approach-avoidance continuum regarding physical contact, focusing specifically on the haptic dimension of nonverbal behavior. The scale operationalizes haptic orientation by assessing both affective responses (feelings about touch) and behavioral intentions (likelihood of initiating or receiving touch), assuming that these responses represent a relatively stable individual difference.

The TAS is fundamentally designed as a unidimensional scale, measuring a single overall construct of comfort with touch. The items are carefully balanced to capture both positive attitudes toward touch (e.g., enjoyment, importance) and highly negative or apprehensive attitudes (e.g., dislike, discomfort, desire for prohibition), ensuring a comprehensive assessment of the core tendency toward either haptic approach or haptic avoidance.

Validity

Although specific validity coefficients are not detailed in the brief source description, the Touch Apprehension Scale is widely recognized in communication research for its strong face validity, as its items clearly and directly address behaviors and feelings related to physical contact. Subsequent studies utilizing the TAS have generally reported acceptable levels of construct validity, demonstrated through theoretically consistent correlations with related psychological and communication measures, such as scales assessing communication competence, relational intimacy, and immediacy behaviors. Furthermore, the scale’s ability to reliably differentiate between groups known to vary in their tendency toward physical contact supports its discriminative validity, establishing it as a reliable tool for predicting and assessing touch-related attitudes and behaviors.

Reliability

The reliability of the Touch Apprehension Scale is typically assessed through measures of internal consistency. While the original publication data is concise, academic research utilizing the TAS since 2004 consistently reports high internal reliability, often yielding Cronbach’s alpha coefficients well above the .80 standard for established psychometric instruments. This high level of internal consistency suggests that the 14 items cohere effectively and measure the same underlying construct of haptic orientation. The stability of the scale, or test-retest reliability, is also inferred to be strong, consistent with the measurement of communication orientations that are considered relatively enduring traits rather than transient states.

Factor Analysis

The scoring methodology of the Touch Apprehension Scale strongly suggests that the instrument was designed to be unidimensional, measuring a single overarching factor of touch comfort/apprehension. The calculation involves summing positive items and subtracting negative items to arrive at one total score, confirming the intended measurement of a single continuum ranging from high approach to high avoidance. Although the source text does not include the results of the original factor analysis, independent factor analytic studies conducted by researchers worldwide have largely supported this single-factor model, validating the scale’s structure as a measure of a unitary construct of haptic orientation.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Psychometric Scale

Format: 14 items rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale.

Language Available: English (Original).

Population Group: General population; commonly used with adult samples, particularly in research settings involving university students and studies of relational dynamics.

Age Group: Adolescents (16+) and Adults.

Population Details: While applicable across diverse groups, researchers should be mindful that cultural differences strongly influence the general acceptability of touch, which may affect the interpretation of scores falling within the neutral range (40–50).

Test Methodology: Respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement using the provided 5-point scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). Scoring involves reversing certain items and calculating a total sum, yielding a score between 14 and 70. Scores are categorized into three primary orientations: Approacher (Scores > 50), Avoider (Scores < 30), and Neutral/Cultural Norm (Scores between 40 and 50).

Keywords

Haptic orientation, communication measurement, nonverbal behavior scale, avoidance, approach behavior, relational communication, psychological assessment, Likert scale.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in source.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not specified in source.

Correspondence Address: Not specified in source.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Touch Apprehension Scale was formally published in 2004 as part of a significant textbook on nonverbal behavior. Consistent with many instruments developed by James C. McCroskey, the scale is typically available for non-commercial academic research and educational purposes, often without a direct fee, provided proper citation is utilized. The scale’s items and scoring instructions are publicly accessible via the author’s academic website, highlighting its high level of accessibility for researchers in interpersonal communication.

Reference’s

• Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (2004). Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relations (5th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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Items of the Touch Apprehension Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

The scale utilizes a 5-point response format:

1. Strongly Disagree = 1
2. Disagree = 2
3. Neutral = 3
4. Agree = 4
5. Strongly Agree = 5

Scoring Instructions:

• Step 1. Add scores for items 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, and 13 (Approach/Positive items).
• Step 2. Add the scores for items 3, 4, 8, 9, 11, 12, and 14 (Apprehension/Negative items).
• Step 3. Complete the following formula: Score = 42 + Total from Step 1 – Total from Step 2.
• Total scores range from 14 to 70. Scores > 50 indicate a high touch orientation (Approacher); Scores < 30 indicate a low touch orientation (Avoider). Scores between 40 and 50 indicate no strong touch orientation—amount of touch will typically be that of the general culture.

Scale Items (Richmond & McCroskey, 2004):

1. I don’t mind if I am hugged as a sign of friendship.
2. I enjoy touching others.
3. I seldom put my arms around others.
4. When I see people hugging, it bothers me.
5. People should not be uncomfortable about being touched.
6. I really like being touched by others.
7. I wish I were free to show my emotions by touching others.
8. I do not like touching other people.
9. I do not like being touched by other people.
10. I find it enjoyable to be touched by others.
11. I dislike ha‎ving to hug others.
12. Hugging and touching should be outlawed.
13. Touching others is a very important part of my personality.
14. Being touched by others makes me uncomfortable.