Working Alliance Inventory

Abstract

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) is a widely utilized psychometric instrument developed by Adam O. Horvath and Leslie S. Greenberg in 1989. Its primary function is to measure the quality and strength of the therapeutic relationship, often referred to as the therapeutic alliance, between a client and a therapist. The WAI is based on Bordin’s (1979) theory, which posits that the alliance is composed of three essential components: agreement on therapeutic Goals, agreement on Tasks used to reach those goals, and the emotional Bond shared between the participants. The instrument exists in multiple forms, including the 36-item Long Form (Client and Therapist versions) and the shorter, revised versions (WAI-SR), and is recognized as one of the most reliable predictors of successful treatment outcome in psychotherapy.

Keywords

Working Alliance Inventory, WAI, Psychotherapy, Therapeutic Alliance, Client-Therapist Relationship, Counseling Psychology, Treatment Outcome, Scale Development, Adam Horvath.

Authors

Adam O. Horvath, Leslie S. Greenberg.

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Purpose

The central purpose of the Working Alliance Inventory is to provide a reliable and quantifiable measure of the quality of the collaborative relationship established between the client and the therapist in a therapeutic setting. Research consistently indicates that the strength of the working alliance is one of the most robust predictors of successful psychotherapy outcomes, regardless of the specific theoretical orientation employed.

By measuring the alliance from both the client’s and the therapist’s perspective, the WAI allows clinicians and researchers to identify potential ruptures or strengths in the relationship, enabling timely intervention or adjustment of therapeutic strategies. This feedback mechanism is crucial for maximizing treatment efficacy across various modalities and ensuring mutual understanding of the treatment process.

Construct

The WAI operationalizes the psychological construct of the working alliance as conceptualized by Edward Bordin (1979). This model defines the alliance not merely as rapport, but as a collaborative endeavor built upon three interdependent factors:

• Goals: The degree to which the client and therapist agree on the desired outcomes or objectives of the therapy.
• Tasks: The degree to which the client and therapist agree on the methods, techniques, and activities used within the session to achieve the goals.
• Bond: The extent of mutual trust, respect, and liking that forms the emotional foundation of the therapeutic relationship.

The scale items are distributed across these three subscales, providing a dimensional assessment rather than just a global score, which enhances its utility for clinical analysis and research into specific aspects of the therapeutic collaboration.

Validity

Initial validation studies by Horvath and Greenberg (1989) demonstrated strong concurrent and predictive validity for the WAI. The scale scores consistently correlated significantly with measures of therapeutic outcome across diverse treatment populations and theoretical approaches, supporting its ability to measure a vital non-specific factor in therapy.

Further research, including subsequent studies and meta-analyses (e.g., Horvath & Symonds, 1991), confirmed the WAI’s validity, showing a reliable positive correlation between high alliance scores (particularly those measured early in treatment) and positive client outcomes. This robust association reinforces the WAI’s status as a valid measure of a core mechanism of therapeutic change.

Reliability

The WAI, in both its long and short forms, has consistently demonstrated high levels of internal consistency (reliability). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the total scale and its three primary subscales (Goals, Tasks, and Bond) typically fall well within acceptable ranges (often exceeding 0.90 for the total score), indicating strong homogeneity among items intended to measure the same construct.

A significant study by Hanson, Curry, & Bandalos (2002) focused on the reliability generalization of WAI scale scores. Their findings indicated that reliability remained high across diverse research settings and populations, supporting the instrument’s generalizability across different counseling contexts. The various forms, including the 12-item WAI-SR, maintain acceptable levels of reliability while offering a more efficient administration method.

Factor Analysis

The factor structure of the WAI typically confirms Bordin’s tripartite model. Initial exploratory and subsequent confirmatory factor analyses of the 36-item Long Form generally support the distinction between the three hypothesized factors: the Task dimension, the Goal dimension, and the Bond dimension. Although the three factors are highly correlated, suggesting a strong underlying general alliance factor, the subscale scoring allows for differential assessment of relational strengths and weaknesses.

The Short Revised version (WAI-SR) also maintains this three-factor structure, albeit with fewer items per subscale (four items per subscale), ensuring that the essential components of the working alliance are still captured efficiently in a brief format.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report inventory (Client/Therapist parallel forms)

Format: Likert scale (typically 7-point, ranging from Never to Always/Seldom to Always)

Language Available: English (Numerous translations exist globally due to its widespread use in psychotherapy research).

Population Group: Clinical population (Individuals undergoing counseling or psychotherapy).

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (Typically 16+).

Population Details: Applicable across various diagnostic categories and treatment settings (e.g., individual, group, family therapy).

Test Methodology: Assesses the relationship elements (Tasks, Goals, Bonds) using parallel forms administered to both the client and the therapist, usually early in the treatment process to maximize predictive utility.

Keywords

Therapeutic relationship, Bordin’s model, Meta-analysis, Counseling, Psychometrics, Treatment outcome prediction, Working Alliance Inventory Short Revised (WAI-SR).

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected]

Correspondence Address: Information regarding the instrument is maintained at the official resource website.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original instrument was developed and validated in 1989. Specific permissions, licensing fees, and access details are managed by the copyright holders. Users interested in utilizing the scale should consult the official website for current policies regarding academic and clinical use. Information on Copyright Issues is available here: http://wai.profhorvath.com/copyright.

Reference’s

• Horvath, Adam O., Greenberg, Leslie S. (1989). Development and validation of the Working Alliance Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36(2): 223-233.
• Horvath, Adam O., Symonds, B. Dianne. (1991). Relation between working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(2): 139-149.
• Hanson, W.E., Curry, K.T., & Bandalos, D.L. (2002). Reliability generalization of Working Alliance Inventory scale scores. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62: 659-673.
• Busseri, M.A., & Tyler, J.D. (2003). The interchangeability of the Working Alliance Inventory and Working Alliance Inventory, Short Form. Psychological Assessment, 15: 193-197.
• Anderson, Ruthann Smith. (2008). Counselor Gender Self-Confidence and Social Influence In Counseling: Counselor Perceptions of the Therapeutic Alliance. Ohio University. Ph.D. dissertation.

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Items of the Working Alliance Inventory

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Long Form, Client

1. I feel uncomfortable with _____.
2. _____ and I agree about the things I will need to do in therapy to help improve my situation.
3. I am worried about the outcome of these sessions.
4. What I am doing in therapy gives me new ways of looking at my problem.
5. _____ and I understand each other.
6. _____ perceives accurately what my goals are.
7. I find what I am doing in therapy confusing.
8. I believe _____ likes me.
9. I wish _____ and I could clarify the purpose of our sessions.
10. I disagree with _____ about what I ought to get out of therapy.
11. I believe the time _____ and I are spending together is not spent efficiently.
12. _____ does not understand what I am trying to accomplish in therapy.
13. I am clear on what my responsibilities are in therapy.
14. The goals of these sessions are important to me.
15. I find what _____ and I are doing in therapy is unrelated to my concerns.
16. I feel that the things I do in therapy will help me to accomplish the changes that I want.
17. I believe _____ is genuinely concerned for my welfare.
18. I am clear as to what _____ wants me to do in these sessions.
19. _____ and I respect each other.
20. I feel that _____ is not totally honest about his/her feelings toward me.
21. I am confident in _____’s ability to help me.
22. _____ and I are working towards mutually agreed upon goals.
23. I feel that _____ appreciates me.
24. We agree on what is important for me to work on.
25. As a result of these sessions I am clearer as to how I might be able to change.
26. _____ and I trust one another.
27. _____ and I have different ideas on what my problems are.
28. My relationship with _____ is very important to me.
29. I have the feeling that if I say or do the wrong things‚ _____ will stop working with me.
30. _____ and I collaborate on setting goals for my therapy.
31. I am frustrated by the things I am doing in therapy.
32. We have established a good understanding of the kind of changes that would be good for me.
33. The things that _____ is asking me to do don’t make sense.
34. I don’t know what to expect as the result of my therapy.
35. I believe the way we are working with my problem is correct.
36. I feel _____ cares about me even when I do things that he/she does not approve of.

Long Form, Therapist/helper

1. I feel uncomfortable with _______________.
2. _______________ and I agree about the steps to be taken to improve his/her situation.
3. I have some concerns about the outcome of these sessions.
4. My client and I both feel confident about the usefullness of our current activity in therapy.
5. I feel I really understand _______________.
6. _______________ and I have a common perception of her/his goals..
7. _______________ finds what we are doing in therapy confusing.
8. I believe _______________ likes me.
9. I sense a need to clarify the purpose of our session(s) for _______________.
10. I have some disagreements with _______________ about the goals of these sessions.
11. I believe the time _______________ and I are spending together is not spent efficiently.
12. I have doubts about what we are trying to accomplish in therapy.
13. I am clear and explicit about what _______________’s responsibilities are in therapy.
14. The current goals of these sessions are important for _______________.
15. I find what _______________ and I are doing in therapy is unrelated to her/his current concerns.
16. I feel confident that the things we do in therapy will help _______________ to accomplish the changes that he/she desires.
17. I am genuinely concerned for _______________’s welfare.
18. I am clear as to what I expect _______________ to do in these sessions.
19. _______________ and I respect each other.
20. I feel that I am not totally honest about my feelings toward _______________.
21. I am confident in my ability to help _______________.
22. We are working towards mutually agreed upon goals.
23. I appreciate _______________ as a person.
24. We agree on what is important for _______________ to work on.
25. As a result of these sessions _______________ is clearer as to how she/he might be able to change.
26. _______________ and I have built a mutual trust.
27. _______________ and I have different ideas on what his/her real problems are.
28. Our relationship is important to _______________.
29. _______________ has some fears that if she/he says or does the wrong things‚ I will stop working with him/her.
30. _______________ and I have collaborated in setting goals for these session(s).
31. _______________ is frustrated by what I am asking her/him to do in therapy.
32. We have established a good understanding between us of the kind of changes that would be good for _______________.
33. The things that we are doing in therapy don’t make much sense to _______________.
34. _______________ doesn’t know what to expect as the result of therapy.
35. _______________ believes the way we are working with her/his problem is correct.
36. I respect _______________ even when he/she does things that I do not approve of.

Working Alliance Inventory – Short Revised (WAI-SR)

1. As a result of these sessions I am clearer as to how I might be able to change. Seldom‚ Sometimes‚ Fairly Often‚ Very Often‚ Always
2. What I am doing in therapy gives me new ways of looking at my problem. Always‚ Very Often‚ Fairly Often‚ Sometimes‚ Seldom
3. I believe ___likes me. Seldom‚ Sometimes‚ Fairly Often‚ Very Often‚ Always
4. ___and I collaborate on setting goals for my therapy. Seldom‚ Sometimes‚ Fairly Often‚ Very Often‚ Always
5. ___and I respect each other. Always‚ Very Often‚ Fairly Often‚ Sometimes‚ Seldom
6. ___and I are working towards mutually agreed upon goals. Always‚ Very Often‚ Fairly Often‚ Sometimes‚ Seldom
7. I feel that ___appreciates me. Seldom‚ Sometimes‚ Fairly Often‚ Very Often‚ Always
8. _____ and I agree on what is important for me to work on. Always‚ Very Often‚ Fairly Often‚ Sometimes‚ Seldom
9. I feel _____ cares about me even when I do things that he/she does not approve of. Seldom‚ Sometimes‚ Fairly Often‚ Very Often‚ Always
10. I feel that the things I do in therapy will help me to accomplish the changes that I want. Always‚ Very Often‚ Fairly Often‚ Sometimes‚ Seldom
11. _____ and I have established a good understanding of the kind of changes that would be good for me. Always‚ Very Often‚ Fairly Often‚ Sometimes‚ Seldom
12. I believe the way we are working with my problem is correct. Seldom‚ Sometimes‚ Fairly Often‚ Very Often‚ Always

Goal Items: 4‚ 6‚ 8‚ 11; Task Items: 1‚ 2‚ 10‚ 12; Bond Items: 3‚ 5‚ 7‚ 9