Symbolic Racism Scale (SRS)

Abstract

The Symbolic Racism Scale (SRS), often cited in its refined version as the Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale (SR2K), was developed by Henry and Sears (2002) to measure a modern, subtle form of racial prejudice prevalent in the United States. Unlike “old-fashioned” racism characterized by beliefs in biological inferiority, Symbolic Racism blends negative affect toward Black Americans with traditional conservative values, manifesting as opposition to policies aimed at reducing racial inequality.

The eight-item scale assesses attitudes across four key dimensions: the belief that Black individuals do not try hard enough to succeed (Blacks Should Work Harder), the perception that Black leaders make excessive demands (Demands for Special Favors), the denial that significant racial discrimination still exists, and the belief that Black Americans receive more than they deserve (Undeserved Outcomes). The SRS is widely recognized as a critical tool in Social Psychology and Political Psychology for predicting opposition to race-targeted policies.

Keywords

Symbolic Racism, Modern Racism, Racial Prejudice, Racial Discrimination, Attitude Measurement, Social Psychology, Political Psychology, Symbolic Racism 2000.

Authors

P. J. Henry, D. O. Sears

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Symbolic Racism Scale (SRS) is to reliably quantify the degree to which individuals endorse symbolically racist attitudes. This measurement is essential for researchers studying contemporary intergroup relations, as overt expressions of prejudice have become socially undesirable, making older scales less effective.

The scale serves to capture the ideological resistance to racial equality that is often masked by seemingly non-racial arguments, such as adherence to the Protestant work ethic, individualism, and abstract principles of equality. By focusing on these coded beliefs, the SRS provides a robust predictor of political behavior, including voting patterns and opposition to specific racial justice initiatives.

Construct

The scale measures the construct of Symbolic Racism, which is fundamentally an affective orientation combined with traditional political values. This construct posits that prejudice is expressed through four distinct, yet highly correlated, thematic components:

• Blacks Should Work Harder: Beliefs that Black Americans’ socioeconomic difficulties are due to a lack of effort or motivation, rather than systemic barriers.
• Demands for Special Favors: Resentment toward perceived excessive or unwarranted demands made by Black leaders or civil rights groups.
• Denial of Continuing Racial Discrimination: The belief that racial inequality is largely a thing of the past and that current discrimination is minor or nonexistent.
• Undeserved Outcomes: The perception that Black Americans receive benefits or economic advantages that they have not earned.

Validity

The Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale demonstrates strong evidence of construct validity, particularly in its ability to converge with measures of political conservatism and divergence from measures of old-fashioned, blatant racism. The items were selected and refined specifically to maximize their correlation with the underlying construct while minimizing contamination from policy-specific attitudes.

Furthermore, the SRS exhibits high predictive validity, consistently correlating strongly with opposition to a wide range of race-targeted policies, including affirmative action, school integration, and government assistance programs. This predictive power confirms the scale’s effectiveness as a measure of underlying racial ideology rather than mere political preference.

Reliability

Academic research utilizing the SR2K generally reports high levels of internal consistency, indicating strong reliability. Studies frequently report Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.80 to 0.86, suggesting that the eight items cohere effectively and measure a single latent variable. This high internal consistency supports the use of the summed or averaged score as a reliable metric of symbolic racial prejudice.

The rigorous development process undertaken by Henry and Sears (2002) ensured that the refined set of items provided a stable and consistent measure. The scale’s reliability is a key reason for its continued widespread use in psychological and sociological research over two decades after its formal introduction.

Factor Analysis

Although the items of the SRS are conceptually grouped into four themes (work ethic, demands, discrimination denial, undeserved outcomes), factor analysis typically supports treating the scale as largely unidimensional. Principal components analysis often reveals a single dominant factor that accounts for a substantial proportion of the variance across all eight items.

While the four conceptual dimensions are useful for understanding the content domain of Symbolic Racism, the strong intercorrelations among the items justify the common practice of combining them into a single, overall score of symbolic prejudice for most research applications.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychological inventory

Format: Eight items, primarily utilizing 4-point Likert scales, with one item (Item #3) using a 3-point scale.

Language Available: Primarily English (U.S.)

Population Group: General population

Age Group: Adults (typically 18+)

Population Details: Developed primarily for use with White American populations to measure attitudes directed toward Black Americans.

Test Methodology: Responses are scored after reversing specific items (1, 2, 3, 4, and 8). Scoring methods vary from simple summation of raw scores (ranging from 8 to 31) to more precise techniques, such as standardizing scores (Z-scores) or normalizing responses onto a 0 to 1 scale to account for differing response options across items. The normalization technique (0-1 scale) was the preferred method used by Henry & Sears (2002).

Keywords

Attitude Measurement, Prejudice Scale, Modern Racism, Symbolic Racism 2000, Psychological Scale, Race Relations, Political Psychology.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source documentation.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source documentation.

Correspondence Address: Refer to the academic affiliations of P. J. Henry (e.g., DePaul University) and D. O. Sears (e.g., UCLA).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Test Year: 2002 (Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale – SR2K).

The Symbolic Racism Scale is generally intended for academic research and is often utilized without specific licensing fees, provided the original source material is properly cited. The instrument and scoring instructions are publicly available online, including the foundational academic paper. The original PDF outlining the scale development and validation can be downloaded here: http://condor.depaul.edu/phenry1/2003%20Sears%20%26%20Henry‚%20JPSP.pdf

Reference’s

Henry, P. J., & Sears, D. O. (2002). The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political Psychology, 23(2), 253-283.

Sears, D. O., & Henry, P. J. (2003). The origins of symbolic racism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 259-275.

Sears, D. O., & Henry, P. J. (2005). Over thirty years later: A contemporary look at symbolic racism. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 37, pp. 95-150). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic.

Items of the Symbolic Racism Scale (SRS)

Blacks Should Work Harder

1. It’s really a matter of some people not trying hard enough; if blacks would only try harder they could be just as well off as whites.

(1) Strongly agree, (2) Somewhat agree, (3) Somewhat disagree, (4) Strongly disagree

2. Irish, Italian, Jewish and many other minorities overcame prejudice and worked their way up. Blacks should do the same [without any special favors].

(1) Strongly agree, (2) Somewhat agree, (3) Somewhat disagree, (4) Strongly disagree

Demands for Special Favors

3. Some say that black leaders have been trying to push too fast. Others feel that they haven’t pushed fast enough. What do you think?

(1) Trying to push very much too fast, (2) Going too slowly, (3) Moving at about the right speed

4. How much of the racial tension that exists in the United States today do you think blacks are responsible for creating?

(1) All of it, (2) Most, (3) Some, (4) Not much at all

Denial of Continuing Racial Discrimination

5. How much discrimination against blacks do you feel there is in the United States today, limiting their chances to get ahead?

(1) A lot, (2) Some, (3) Just a little, (4) None at all

6. Generations of slavery and discrimination have created conditions that make it difficult for blacks to work their way out of the lower class.

(1) Strongly agree, (2) Somewhat agree, (3) Somewhat disagree, (4) Strongly disagree

Undeserved Outcomes

7. Over the past few years, blacks have gotten less than they deserve.

(1) Strongly agree, (2) Somewhat agree, (3) Somewhat disagree, (4) Strongly disagree

8. Over the past few years, blacks have gotten more economically than they deserve.

(1) Strongly agree, (2) Somewhat agree, (3) Somewhat disagree, (4) Strongly disagree

Reverse the following items: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8.