Religious Coping Methods (RCOPE)

Abstract

The Religious Coping Methods (RCOPE) scale is a comprehensive, multidimensional instrument designed to measure the specific ways individuals utilize religion and spirituality to manage and respond to major life stressors. Developed by Pargament and colleagues, the full RCOPE instrument identifies 21 distinct religious coping methods, which are conceptually grouped into four primary coping functions: finding meaning, gaining control, obtaining comfort and intimacy, and achieving life transformation. The scale is particularly noted for differentiating between potentially beneficial (Positive) and potentially harmful (Negative) religious coping strategies, allowing researchers and clinicians to assess adaptive and maladaptive responses to stress.

Keywords

Religious coping, spirituality, psychological assessment, stress, coping mechanisms, positive coping, negative coping, psychometrics, Pargament.

Authors

Kenneth I. Pargament, Brian Smith, Harold G. Koenig, Lisa Perez.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the RCOPE scale is to provide a detailed, nuanced measure of religious coping behaviors beyond simple frequency counts or global spiritual involvement. It aims to operationalize the specific methods and styles—both constructive and destructive—that individuals employ when facing significant negative life events. This specificity allows for a deeper understanding of the relationship between religiousness, psychological adjustment, and health outcomes.

The scale was developed to address the limitations of earlier measures, which often treated religious coping as a unitary construct. By identifying 21 distinct subscales, the RCOPE enables researchers to isolate which types of religious coping methods are most effective, or detrimental, across various populations and stressful circumstances.

Construct

The RCOPE measures the psychological construct of Religious Coping, defined as the process of using religious beliefs, practices, and experiences to understand and deal with environmental and internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the individual’s resources. The scale explicitly organizes these methods around four functional categories of coping:

• Finding Meaning: How religion is used to reappraise the stressor (e.g., Benevolent Reappraisal, Punishing God Reappraisal).
• Gaining Control: How individuals attempt to manage the situation (e.g., Collaborative Coping, Passive Deferral).
• Obtaining Comfort and Intimacy: Seeking support or connection (e.g., Seeking Spiritual Support, Spiritual Discontent).
• Achieving Life Transformation: Using the crisis as a catalyst for growth or change (e.g., Religious Forgiving, Religious Conversion).

Validity

Initial validation studies, particularly the 2000 publication, demonstrated strong construct Validity for the RCOPE. The 21 subscales were derived theoretically and empirically shown to be distinct yet related, supporting the multidimensional model of religious coping. The scale exhibits criterion validity through the differentiation of positive and negative coping patterns: Positive religious coping methods (e.g., Collaborative Coping, Seeking Spiritual Support) were generally associated with better psychological adjustment and well-being, while Negative religious coping methods (e.g., Punishing God Reappraisal, Spiritual Discontent) were consistently correlated with poorer adjustment, higher anxiety, and increased symptoms of depression.

Reliability

The RCOPE scale exhibits acceptable to strong internal consistency across its various subscales. In the initial validation work, the subscales generally showed Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from the high .70s to the low .90s, indicating high internal Reliability. The Brief RCOPE, which distills the instrument into two core factors (Positive and Negative Religious Coping), also demonstrated good reliability, making it suitable for clinical and time-constrained research settings.

Factor Analysis

Initial Factor Analysis conducted by Pargament and colleagues supported the highly differentiated structure of the RCOPE. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a robust structure supporting the 21 specific religious coping methods. Furthermore, higher-order factor analysis supported the conceptual grouping of these methods into broader, bipolar dimensions, specifically the distinction between the overarching Positive Religious Coping cluster (adaptive, supportive methods) and the Negative Religious Coping cluster (distressed, conflicted methods). This factor structure is central to the instrument’s utility in distinguishing between beneficial and detrimental religious responses to stress.

Instrument

Test Type: Psychometric Scale/Self-Report Inventory

Format: Likert-type scale, typically ranging from 4-point to 5-point responses depending on the specific item set used.

Language Available: English (and translated into numerous languages for cross-cultural research).

Population Group: General population, often used with individuals facing major life stressors (e.g., illness, bereavement, trauma).

Age Group: Adolescents through older adults.

Population Details: The scale has been validated across diverse religious backgrounds, although the language and concepts are rooted primarily in monotheistic traditions. It is widely used in health psychology, counseling, and social science research.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate the extent to which they used each coping method when dealing with a specific stressful situation. The full version comprises 100 items across 21 subscales, while the Brief RCOPE uses 14 items (7 Positive, 7 Negative) to capture the overall valence of religious coping.

Keywords

Psychology of religion, coping scale, spiritual support, life stress, religious reappraisal, self-directing coping, collaborative coping, measure of religiosity.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source material.

Affiliation Email addresses: Not provided in source material.

Correspondence Address: Not provided in source material.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The primary validation of the full RCOPE instrument was published in 2000. Researchers are generally encouraged to contact the authors (specifically Kenneth Pargament) for permissions regarding usage, especially for commercial applications. The instrument is widely accessible for academic and research purposes.

The original PDF detailing the development and validation of the RCOPE can be downloaded here: http://www.jpsych.com/pdfs/Pargament‚ Koenig & Perez‚ 2000.pdf

Additional context regarding the measurement of religiousness and spirituality, including this instrument, is available in the report of the Fetzer Institute/National Institute on Aging Working Group: http://fetzer.org/resources/multidimensional-measurement-religiousnessspirituality-use-health-research

Reference’s

• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ Kennell‚ J.‚ Hathaway‚ W.‚ Grevengoed‚ N.‚ Newman‚ J.‚ & Jones‚ W. (1988). Religion and the problem-solving process: Three styles of coping. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion‚ 27‚ 90–104.
• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ Ensing‚ D.S.‚ Falgout‚ K.‚ Olsen‚ H.‚ Reilly‚ B.‚ Van Haitsma‚ K.‚ & Warren‚ R. (1990). God help me (I): Religious coping efforts as predictors of the outcomes to significant negative life events. American Journal of Community Psychology‚ 18‚ 793–824.
• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ Ishler‚ K.‚ Dubow‚ E.‚ Stanik‚ P.‚ Rouiller‚ R.‚ Crowe‚ P.‚ Cullman‚ E.‚ Albert‚ M.‚ & Royster‚ B.J. (1994). Methods of religious coping with the Gulf War: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion‚ 33‚ 347–361.
• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ & Park‚ C.L. (1995). Merely a defense? The variety of religious means and ends. Journal of Social Issues‚ 5‚ 13–32.
• Pargament‚ K.I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory‚ research‚ practice. New York: Guilford Press.
• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ Smith‚ B.‚ Koenig‚ H.G.‚ & Perez‚ L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion‚ 37‚ 710–724.
• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ Zinnbauer‚ B.J.‚ Scott‚ A.B.‚ Butter‚ E.M.‚ Zerowin‚ J.‚ & Stanik‚ P. (1998). Red flags and religious coping: Identifying some religious warning signs among people in crisis. Journal of Clinical Psychology‚ 54‚ 77–89.
• Pargament‚ K.I.‚ Smith‚ B.‚ Koenig‚ H.G.‚ & Perez‚ L. (2000). The Many Methods of Religious Coping: Development and Initial Validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology‚ Vol. 56(4)‚ 519–543
• Idler‚ E. L‚ Ellison‚ C. G.‚ George‚ L. K.‚ Krause‚ N.‚ Levin‚ J.‚ Ory‚ M.‚ Pargament‚ K.‚ Powell‚ L.‚ Williams‚ D.‚ Gordon‚ L.‚ & Musick‚ M. A. (2004). Measuring multiple dimensions of religion and spirituality for health research: Conceptual background and findings from the 1998 General Social Survey. Research on Aging‚ 25‚ 327-365.

Items of the Religious Coping Methods (RCOPE )

Brief RCOPE Items

Positive Religious/Spiritual Coping Subscale

1. I think about how my life is part of a larger spiritual force (Search for SpiritualConnection).*
2. I work together with God as partners to get through hard times (CollaborativeReligious Coping).*
3. I look to God for strength‚ support‚ and guidance in crises (Seeking SpiritualSupport).*
4. I try to find the lesson from God in crises (Benevolent Religious Appraisal).
5. I confess my sins and ask for God’s forgiveness (Ritual Purification).

Negative Religious/Spiritual Coping Subscale

1. I feel that stressful situations are God’s way of punishing me for my sins or lack of spirituality (Punishing God Reappraisal).*
2. I wonder whether God has abandoned me (Spiritual Discontent).*
3. I try to make sense of the situation and decide what to do without relying on God (Self-Directed Religious Coping).*
4. I question whether God really exists (Religious Doubts).
5. I express anger at God for letting terrible things happen (Anger at God).

1 – A great deal‚ 2 – Quite a bit‚ 3 – Somewhat‚ 4 – Not at all

Overall Religious/Spiritual Coping Item

To what extent is your religion involved in understanding or dealing with stressful situations in any way?*

1 – Very involved‚ 2 – Somewhat involved‚ 3 – Not very involved‚ 4 – Not involved at all

* Items at short form

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RCOPE Subscales and Items

Religious Methods of Coping to Find Meaning

Benevolent Religious Reappraisal—redefining the stressor through religion as benevolent and potentially beneficial

1. *1. Saw my situation as part of God’s plan.
2. *2. Tried to find a lesson from God in the event.
3. *3. Tried to see how God might be trying to strengthen me in this situation.
4. 4. Thought that the event might bring me closer to God.
5. 5. Tried to see how the situation could be beneficial spiritually.

Punishing God Reappraisal—redefining the stressor as a punishment from God for the individual’s sins

1. *1. Wondered what I did for God to punish me.
2. *2. Decided that God was punishing me for my sins.
3. *3. Felt punished by God for my lack of devotion.
4. 4.Wondered if God allowed this event to happen to me because of my sins.
5. 5.Wondered whether God was punishing me because of my lack of faith.

Demonic Reappraisal—redefining the stressor as the act of the Devil

1. *1. Believed the Devil was responsible for my situation.
2. *2. Felt the situation was the work of the Devil.
3. 3. Felt the Devil was trying to turn me away from God.
4. *4. Decided the Devil made this happen.
5. 5. Wondered if the Devil had anything to do with this situation.

Reappraisal of God’s Powers—redefining God’s power to influence the stressful situation

1. *1. Questioned the power of God.
2. *2. Thought that some things are beyond God’s control.
3. *3. Realized that God cannot answer all of my prayers.
4. 4. Realized that there were some things that even God could not change.
5. 5. Felt that even God has limits.

Religious/Spiritual Methods of Coping to Gain Control

Collaborative Religious Coping—seeking control through a partnership with God in problem solving

1. *1. Tried to put my plans into action together with God.
2. *2. Worked together with God as partners.
3. *3. Tried to make sense of the situation with God.
4. 4. Felt that God was working right along with me.
5. 5. Worked together with God to relieve my worries.

Active Religious Surrender—an active giving up of control to God in coping

1. *1. Did my best and then turned the situation over to God.
2. *2. Did what I could and put the rest in God’s hands.
3. *3. Took control over what I could‚ and gave the rest up to God.
4. 4. Tried to do the best I could and let God do the rest.
5. 5. Turned the situation over to God after doing all that I could.

Passive Religious Deferral—passive waiting for God to control the situation

1. *1. Didn’t do much‚ just expected God to solve my problems for me.
2. *2. Didn’t try much of anything; simply expected God to take control.
3. *3. Didn’t try to cope; only expected God to take my worries away.
4. 4. Knew that I couldn’t handle the situation‚ so I just expected God to take control.
5. 5. Didn’t try to do much; just assumed God would handle it.

Pleading for Direct Intercession—seeking control indirectly by pleading to God for a miracle or divine intercession

1. *1. Pleaded with God to make things turn out okay.
2. *2. Prayed for a miracle.
3. *3. Bargained with God to make things better.
4. 4. Made a deal with God so that he would make things better.
5. 5. Pleaded with God to make everything work out.

Self-Directing Religious Coping—seeking control directly through individual initiative rather than help from God

1. *1. Tried to deal with my feelings without God’s help.
2. *2. Tried to make sense of the situation without relying on God.
3. *3. Made decisions about what to do without God’s help.
4. 4. Depended on my own strength without support from God.
5. 5. Tried to deal with the situation on my own without God’s help.

Religious/Spiritual Methods of Coping to Gain Comfort and Closeness to God

Seeking Spiritual Support—searching for comfort and reassurance through God’s love and care

1. *1. Sought God’s love and care.
2. *2. Trusted that God would be by my side.
3. *3. Looked to God for strength‚ support and guidance.
4. 4. Trusted that God was with me.
5. 5. Sought comfort from God.

Religious Distraction—engaging in religious/ spiritual activities to avoid focusing on the stressor

1. *1. Prayed to get my mind off of my problems.
2. *2. Thought about spiritual matters to stop thinking about my problems.
3. *3. Focused on religion to stop worrying about my problems.
4. 4.Went to church to stop thinking about this situation.
5. 5. Tried to get my mind off my problems by focusing on God.

Religious Purification—searching for spiritual cleansing through religious actions

1. *1. Confessed my sins.
2. *2. Asked forgiveness for my sins.
3. *3. Tried to be less sinful.
4. 4. Searched for forgiveness from God.
5. 5. Asked for God to help me be less sinful.

Spiritual Connection—experiencing a sense of connectedness with forces that transcend

1. 1. Looked for a stronger connection with God.
2. *2. Sought a stronger spiritual connection with other people.
3. *3. Thought about how my life is part of a larger spiritual force.
4. 4. Tried to build a strong relationship with a higher power.
5. 5. Tried to experience a stronger feeling of spirituality.

Spiritual Discontent—expressing confusion and dissatisfaction with God’s relationship to the individual in the stressful situation

1. *1. Wondered whether God had abandoned me.
2. *2. Voiced anger that God didn’t answer my prayers.
3. *3. Questioned God’s love for me.
4. 4. Wondered if God really cares.
5. 5. Felt angry that God was not there for me.

Marking Religious Boundaries—clearly demarcating acceptable from unacceptable religious behavior and remaining within religious boundaries

1. *1. Avoided people who weren’t of my faith.
2. *2. Stuck to the teachings and practices of my religion.
3. *3. Ignored advice that was inconsistent with my faith.
4. 4. Tried to stick with others of my own faith.
5. 5. Stayed away from false religious teachings.

Religious/Spiritual Methods of Coping to Gain Intimacy with Others and Closeness to God

Seeking Support from Clergy or Members—searching for comfort and reassurance through the love and care of congregation members and clergy

1. *1. Looked for spiritual support from clergy.
2. *2. Asked others to pray for me.
3. *3. Looked for love and concern from the members of my church.
4. 4. Sought support from members of my congregation.
5. 5. Asked clergy to remember me in their prayers.

Religious Helping—attempting to provide spiritual support and comfort to others

1. *1. Prayed for the well-being of others.
2. *2. Offered spiritual support to family or friends.
3. *3. Tried to give spiritual strength to others.
4. 4. Tried to comfort others through prayer.
5. 5. Tried to provide others with spiritual comfort.

Interpersonal Religious Discontent—expressing confusion and dissatisfaction with the relationship of clergy or members to the individual in the stressful situation

1. *1. Disagreed with what the church wanted me to do or believe.
2. *2. Felt dissatisfaction with the clergy.
3. *3. Wondered whether my church had abandoned me.
4. 4. Felt my church seemed to be rejecting or ignoring me.
5. 5.Wondered whether my clergy was really there for me.

Religious/Spiritual Methods of Coping to Achieve a Life Transformation

Seeking Religious Direction—looking to religion for assistance in finding a new direction for living when the old one may no longer be viable

1. *1. Asked God to help me find a new purpose in life.
2. *2. Prayed to find a new reason to live.
3. *3. Prayed to discover my purpose in living.
4. 4. Sought new purpose in life from God.
5. 5. Looked to God for a new direction in life.

Religious Conversion—looking to religion for a radical change in life

1. *1. Tried to find a completely new life through religion.
2. *2. Looked for a total spiritual reawakening.
3. *3. Prayed for a complete transformation of my life.
4. 4. Tried to change my whole way of life and follow a new path—God’s path.
5. 5. Hoped for a spiritual rebirth.

Religious Forgiving—looking to religion for help in shifting from anger‚ hurt‚ and fear associated with an offense to peace

1. *1. Sought help from God in letting go of my anger.
2. *2. Asked God to help me overcome my bitterness.
3. *3. Sought God’s help in trying to forgive others.
4. 4. Asked God to help me be more forgiving.
5. 5. Sought spiritual help to give up my resentments.

*Indicates item is on the 3-item version of the given subscale.

1 – Not at all‚ 2 – Somewhat‚ 3 – Quite a bit‚ 4 – A great deal