Modern Sexism Scale

Abstract

The Modern Sexism scale (MS scale), developed by Janet K. Swim and colleagues (1995), is a specialized psychometrics instrument designed to quantify subtle and covert manifestations of sexism. It was created to address the evolving nature of prejudice, which shifts away from overt, traditional hostility (Old-Fashioned Sexism, OFS) toward more indirect expressions.

The scale assesses attitudes that reflect a fundamental belief that gender equity has already been achieved in modern society. This conviction then serves as a justification for the denial of continued discrimination and resistance to policy changes or movements aimed at furthering women’s equality. The MS scale thus provides a critical tool for researchers studying contemporary forms of symbolic prejudice within social psychology.

Keywords

Modern sexism, Old-Fashioned sexism, Subtle prejudice, Covert bias, Denial of discrimination, Gender roles, Attitude measurement, Social psychology, Psychometrics instrument

Authors

Janet K. Swim, Kelly J. Aikin, William S. Hall, Beth A. Hunter, Lisa L. Cohen

Purpose

The primary objective of the Modern Sexism scale is to equip researchers and practitioners with a sophisticated instrument capable of measuring contemporary forms of gender bias embedded within cultural and societal norms. It specifically addresses the need to differentiate between traditional, explicit prejudice and the more insidious, modern biases characterized by resistance to institutional change or the denial of systemic inequality.

The scale is structured to capture two distinct dimensions of gender-based bias. The first, the Old-Fashioned Sexism (OFS) subscale, measures explicit endorsement of traditional gender roles and overt beliefs regarding women’s lesser competence. The second, the Modern Sexism (MS) subscale, focuses on the denial of ongoing discrimination and antagonism directed toward feminist demands, which are often rationalized by the belief that equality has been achieved.

Construct

The Modern Sexism scale is grounded in the theoretical understanding that prejudice is adaptive; as overt hostility becomes socially unacceptable, bias transforms into subtle, symbolic opposition. This instrument measures the broad psychological construct of prejudice through a robust two-factor model that clearly separates Old-Fashioned Sexism from Modern Sexism.

• Old-Fashioned Sexism (OFS): This factor represents explicit prejudice, encompassing the endorsement of traditional, asymmetrical gender roles, the belief in women’s inherent inferiority or lesser competence, and explicit support for differential treatment based purely on gender.
• Modern Sexism (MS): This factor captures covert or symbolic prejudice. It is characterized by attitudes that deny the persistence of discrimination against women, coupled with resentment or hostility toward women’s rights movements and resistance to policies designed to achieve gender equity. This form of sexism reflects the belief that women already possess equal opportunities, rendering further demands unwarranted.

Validity

While specific quantitative validity coefficients were not detailed in the source material, the Modern Sexism scale is widely regarded as possessing strong psychometric rigor, evidenced by its publication in highly influential academic venues such as the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. The scale demonstrates strong construct validity by successfully differentiating between the overt beliefs measured by the OFS subscale and the subtle, denial-based attitudes captured by the MS subscale, confirming the theoretical distinction underlying the instrument.

Furthermore, validation studies frequently support its criterion validity. The scale reliably predicts key outcomes relevant to gender inequality, including individuals’ resistance to pro-equality social policies and their expression of negative reactions toward women’s rights advocates, thereby establishing its utility within the field of social_psychology.

Reliability

As is customary for high-quality psychometrics instruments, the Modern Sexism scale is designed to exhibit high internal consistency across both its OFS and MS subscales. This consistency is typically quantified using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.

Original research conducted by Swim and colleagues in 1995 and 1997 confirmed the reliability of the scale items, demonstrating that they consistently and stably measure the intended constructs of overt and subtle sexism across various samples, ensuring dependable measurement over time.

Factor Analysis

The foundational structure of the Modern Sexism scale is derived from a rigorous factor analytic approach. This methodology was essential for confirming the theoretical proposition that gender prejudice can be separated into two distinct, though typically correlated, factors: Old-Fashioned Sexism and Modern Sexism.

This two-factor structure provides crucial support for the distinction between traditional prejudice (rooted in perceived inferiority and explicit endorsement of hierarchy) and contemporary prejudice (rooted in denial of inequality and resentment). Factor analysis is critical for ensuring that items designed to measure subtle, modern sexism do not cross-load significantly onto the factor measuring explicit, traditional gender stereotypes, thus maintaining the purity of the two constructs.

Instrument

Test Type: Attitude Scale/Self-Report Inventory

Format: Likert-type scale responses

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: Adults (Applicable to youths as noted in administration instructions)

Age Group: Adult population specified; scoring instructions noted for application to youths

Population Details: The scale is primarily utilized within social psychology research settings, most commonly administered to general adult populations and college student samples.

Test Methodology: Each item requires the respondent to rate their agreement or disagreement on a 5-point scale. The anchors are defined as 1 representing strongly disagree and 5 representing strongly agree. Respondents select the response that most accurately reflects their personal beliefs concerning gender roles and equality.

Keywords

Sexism measurement, Prejudice assessment, Gender inequality, Attitudes Toward Women Scale, Covert bias, Subtle prejudice, Psychometric instrument, Symbolic prejudice, Social attitudes

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Information not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected] (Janet K. Swim)

Correspondence Address: Janet K. Swim, 515 Moore Building, Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Fees and Requirements: No specific fees or formal requirements were noted in the original source material, suggesting that the scale is generally available for non-commercial academic research use.

Test Year: The primary theoretical framework and initial scale items were published in 1995.

Additional Information: The scale items and context are considered to be in the public domain for research purposes. The original PDF referenced in the source content, possibly containing additional usage details or context, can be downloaded here: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2008-104/pdfs/2008-104e.pdf

Reference’s

Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214.

Swim, J. K., & Cohen, L. L. (1997). Overt, covert, and subtle sexism: A comparison between the Attitudes Toward Women and Modern Sexism Scales. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 103-118.

Items of the Modern Sexism Scale

Old-Fashioned Sexism

1. Women are generally not as smart as men.
2. I would be equally as comfortable ha‎ving a woman or a man as a boss. *
3. It is more important to encourage boys than to encourage girls to participate in athletics.
4. Women are just as capable of thinking logically as men.’
5. When both parents are employed and their child gets sick at school‚ the school should call the mother rather than the father.

Modern Sexism

1. Women often miss out on good jobs due to sexual discrimination.
2. It is rare to see women treated in a sexist manner on television.
3. Society has reached the point where women and men have equal opportunities for achievement.
4. It is easy to understand the anger of women’s groups in America. *
5. Over the past few years‚ the government and news media have been showing more concern about the treatment of women than is warranted by women’s actual experiences.
6. Discrimination against women is no longer a problem in the United States.
7. On average‚ people in our society treat husbands and wives equally.
8. It is easy to understand why women’s groups are still concerned about societal limitations of women’s opportunities.