Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale

Abstract

The Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES) is a psychometric instrument designed to assess parents’ confidence in their ability to initiate and conduct discussions with their children, particularly adolescents, regarding various sexuality issues. Its development is rooted in Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), specifically Albert Bandura’s construct of self-efficacy (SE). The scale defines parenting SE as the belief in one’s capacity to communicate effectively about specific sex-related topics, which are categorized into physiological processes, practical issues (e.g., contraception access), and safer-sex messages. The final, refined version of the PSES consists of 17 items, often utilized in research concerning sexual health interventions and parent-child communication dynamics.

Keywords

Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale, PSES, Self-Efficacy, Parent-Child Communication, Sexuality Education, Adolescence, Social Cognitive Theory, Sexual Health.

Authors

Colleen DiIorio, W. N. Dudley, D. Wang, J. Wasserman, M. Eichler, L. Belcher, et al.

Purpose

The primary objective of the Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES) is to quantitatively measure the level of confidence that parents hold regarding their capability to engage in discussions about sexuality with their children or adolescents.

This measurement is crucial for identifying potential barriers to effective sexual health communication within families and for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving parental communication skills and confidence concerning sensitive, sex-related topics.

Construct

The PSES is theoretically grounded in Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), utilizing the core concept of Self-Efficacy (SE). Bandura defines SE as an individual’s belief in their capacity to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments. People with strong self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to perform the necessary behaviors and achieve success.

Crucially, SE is conceptualized as behavior-specific. Therefore, the PSES specifically measures Parenting Self-Efficacy related to sexual communication. This construct is operationalized as the parents’ overall belief in their capacity to discuss specific sex-related topics with their children. These topics are subdivided into three predefined areas identified through literature review and focus groups: 1) Physiological Processes (e.g., menstruation); 2) Practical Issues (e.g., where to obtain condoms); and 3) Safer-Sex Messages (e.g., advising condom use if sexually active).

Validity

Construct Validity of the original 16-item PSES was initially evaluated using a sample of 491 mothers. The assessment focused on examining the association of total PSES scores with several theoretically relevant external variables, including sex-based communication frequency, general communication, overall parenting ability, and self-esteem. All measured correlations between the PSES and these external scales were statistically significant and aligned with predicted theoretical directions, supporting the scale’s construct validity.

Further validation findings indicated that mothers of daughters reported significantly higher levels of parenting SE related to sexual communication compared to mothers of sons, consistent with existing literature. In subsequent descriptive studies, the PSES was significantly and positively correlated with actual sexuality discussions, confirming that mothers who reported higher self-efficacy were more confident and actively engaged in talking with their children about sexuality issues (Pluhar et al., 2008).

Reliability

Initial reliability assessment of the 16-item PSES, based on responses from 491 mothers of adolescents (aged 11 to 14), demonstrated strong internal consistency for the total scale. The calculated Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for the total PSES score was .85, indicating a moderately high level of consistency. The mean inter-item correlation was .28, with item-to-total correlations ranging from .24 to .61.

Internal consistency for the two identified subscales showed variability: the Basic Information subscale achieved an alpha of .84, while the Relationship-Based Information subscale demonstrated a lower internal consistency of .67. Subsequent research utilizing the 17-item PSES in a randomized controlled study involving father participants yielded a total Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of .85 (DiIorio, McCarty, & Denzmore, 2006). Another study using the 16-item version with fathers of younger children (6–12 years old) reported a very high alpha coefficient of .94.

Factor Analysis

The underlying dimensions of the PSES were assessed using an exploratory maximum likelihood common factor analysis with oblique rotation. The initial analysis identified three factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0, collectively accounting for 51% of the total variance. However, given that Factor 3 was minimally defined by only a single item, a subsequent analysis was constrained to extract two factors, which provided a clearer and more interpretable data structure, accounting for 44% of the variance.

The resulting two-factor model defined the scale’s dimensions: 1) Basic Information (10 items), which covered the pre-specified aspects of physiological events, practical issues, and safer-sex messages; and 2) Relationship-Based Information (6 items), which focused on complex relational issues such as encouraging a partner to wait, communicating boundaries (saying no), and exploring non-sexual activities. Because the Relationship-Based Information factor initially showed a slightly less than adequate reliability coefficient (.67), a 17th item was subsequently written and added to the scale to further enhance the definition and reliability of this factor.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychometric scale measuring behavior-specific self-efficacy.

Format: 17 items (originally 16) rated on a 7-point Likert scale. Items are positively worded, utilizing the standard stem: “I can always explain to [my child]…”

Language Available: English (Original)

Population Group: Parents (Mothers and Fathers)

Age Group: Parents of children and adolescents (studied with children aged 6 to 14 years).

Population Details: The scale was initially developed and validated among mothers of 11- to 14-year-old adolescents but has since been successfully utilized in studies involving fathers and parents of younger children.

Test Methodology: Each item is rated on a 7-point scale anchored by Not Sure at all (1) and Completely Sure (7), with Moderately Sure (4) as the midpoint. Total scores are found by summing responses, ranging from 17 to 119. Higher scores correspond to a higher degree of self-efficacy regarding sexual communication. The PSES takes approximately 5–10 minutes to complete and can be adapted for computer-assisted interview (CAI) programs or face-to-face interviews.

Keywords

Parental confidence, Sexual communication, Psychometrics, Adolescent health, Factor Analysis, Internal Consistency.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected]

Correspondence Address: Colleen DiIorio, Emory University, Rollins School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Test Year: Initial 16-item scale development published in 2001 (DiIorio et al., 2001); 17-item version developed shortly thereafter.

Permissions and Fees: Information regarding current licensing fees or explicit usage permissions is not detailed in the source material. Researchers should contact the corresponding author (Colleen DiIorio) for permission requests and usage guidelines.

Reference’s

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

DiIorio, C., Dudley, W. N., Wang, D., Wasserman, J., Eichler, M., Belcher, L., et al. (2001). Measurement of parenting self-efficacy and outcome expectancy related to discussions about sex. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 9, 135–49.

DiIorio, C., McCarty, F., & Denzmore, P. (2006). An exploration of social cognitive theory mediators of father-son communication about sex. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 917–927.

Pluhar, E. I., DiIorio, C. K., & McCarty, F. (2008). Correlates of sexuality communication among mothers and 6–12-year-old children. Child Care and Health Development, 34, 283–290.

Items of the Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Read each statement about talking to your child about sexuality issues. Then chose a number on the scale from 1 (Not Sure at all) to 7 (Completely Sure) to say how sure you are about your ability to talk about each topic with [my child] as he/she grows up. Remember, 1 means Not Sure at all, 4 means Moderately Sure, and 7 means Completely Sure. You can also answer with the numbers in between. For example, a 5 or 6 would mean somewhere between Moderately Sure and Completely Sure.

Response Options:

1 Not Sure at all 2 34 ——Moderately Sure 567 ———–Completely Sure

Items

1. I can always explain to [my child] what is happening when a girl has her period.

2. I can always explain to [my child] why a person should use a condom when he or she has sex.

3. I can always explain to [my child] ways to have fun without having sexual intercourse.

4. I can always explain to [my child] why [my child] should wait until [my child] is older to have sexual intercourse.

5. I can always explain to [my child] that [my child] should use condoms if [my child] decides to have sexual intercourse.

6. I can always explain to [my child] why wet dreams occur.

7. I can always explain to [my child] how to put on a condom.

8. I can always explain to [my child] how to use birth control pills.

9. I can always explain to [my child] how birth control pills keep girls from getting pregnant.

10. I can always explain to [my child] what I think about young teens having sex.

11. I can always explain to [my child] how to tell someone no if [my child] does not want to have sex.

12. I can always explain to [my child] how to make a partner wait until [my child] is ready to have sex.

13. I can always explain to [my child] how someone can get AIDS if they don’t use a condom.

14. I can always explain to [my child] where to buy or get condoms.

15. I can always explain to [my child] where to buy or get birth control pills.

16. I can always explain to [my child] how to tell if a girl or boy really loves [my child].

17. I can always explain to [my child] how to resist peer pressure to have sex.